Forcing conditions of cross-shelf plumes on a wide continental shelf, Winyah Bay, South Atlantic Bight

Buoyant cross-shelf river plumes can extend far offshore through the combined effect of buoyancy and wind forcing, creating a critical land-ocean link in global biogeochemical cycles. On the Carolinas continental shelf, cross-shelf plume structure has been analyzed using satellite imagery, with forcing conditions represented by an estuarine Richardson number, wind stress, and alongshore pressure gradient. Three distinct cross-shelf plume patterns emerged, each occurring under an upwelling-favorable wind: (1) The separated plume, when a single filament of buoyant water spreads offshore (a prototypical cross-shelf plume structure); (2) The upwind-curving plume, which turns against the wind at some offshore distance and is created by stronger buoyancy forcing; and (3) The multi-lobe plume, which is partially trapped by the coast with multiple streaks protruding offshore and is created by stronger wind forcing, and further aided by a coincident alongshore pressure gradient force. The latter two regimes represent a low-wind, high discharge limit and a strong-wind limit of cross-shelf plumes. High-resolution satellite images reveal rich submesoscale variability associated with each plume type. Results suggest plume transport extends farthest offshore in low-energy separated plumes through a balance of weak buoyancy and weak wind forcing. •Cross-shelf plumes are formed by light-to-moderate upwelling favorable winds.•Stronger winds shut down the estuarine outflow separation from the coastline.•High river discharge reduces the optimal wind stress range for cross-shelf plumes.