Gender differences in millet consumption in arid Inner Asia during the Iron Age documented by stable isotopes: A case study from Shihuyao, Xinjiang

Western diffusion and indigenized utilization of China's prehistoric millet crops have recently attracted wide attention from scholars. Previous studies revealed the economic role of millet cereals in Eurasia, especially Inner Asia. However, in the process of indigenized utilization of millet cereals, the social role of millet, for example, its relationship with gender, social class as well as labor division in prehistoric Inner Asia is still lacking of systemic study. Twenty adult male and 17 adult female bones sampled from Early Iron Age Shihuyao cemetery provide opportunity to explore the millet consumption strategy between the gender in prehistoric Xinjiang, based on AMS radiocarbon dating and stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic technology. Meanwhile, 469 previously published stable isotopic datasets of different genders from Bronze-Iron Age Inner Asia are collected systemically to explore jointly the relationship between millet consumption and social factors in prehistoric Inner Asia. Our results show that Shihuyao males consumed much more C4 crops (probably millet) than females significantly. Further analysis in Inner Asia indicates this differences of millet consumption between genders also occurred widely in the Early Iron Age other sites of Xinjiang, Southeast Central Asia, and Central Kazakhstan. Combined with archaeological evidences, it can be inferred that a few males who consume much more millet could have special social status, e.g., some males who consumed much more millet than females in Xinjiang (Central Kazakhstan) tend to be found in a lower (higher) social class cemetery. However, in broad Inner Asia, this millet consumption difference between genders during the Early Iron Age could be related with social labor divisions based on gender, i.e., in process of long-distance animal herding, dry provisions made from millet are carried for males' consumption. This study provides significant information towards elucidating the relationship between millet cereals utilization and social culture in prehistoric Eurasia. •The dietary strategy between genders in prehistoric Inner Asia are investigated systemically.•The difference in millet consumption between genders are discovered widely in Early Iron Age Inner Asia.•Labor division or social hierarchy, based on gender, may result in millet consumption difference between male and female.