Volcanoes in the estuaries: Insights into Earth’s oldest (3.22 Ga) terrestrial microbial habitats, Moodies Group, Barberton Greenstone Belt

•Sills, dikes, lavas, and tuffs are common in shallow-water siliciclastics of the Moodies Group.•Dynamic effusive-explosive lava-sediment interactions are widely preserved.•Volcanism occurred in tidal zones and estuaries and may have been an ideal incubation laboratory for early microbial benthic life. The Moodies Group of the Paleoarchean Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB; ca. 3.22 Ga) provides an exceptional window into Archaean sedimentary and magmatic processes interacting with microbial ecology. Its magmatic component, the Moodies Igneous Complex (MIC), has to date been largely overlooked. The MIC consists of several mafic-to-intermediate sills, peperitic dike stockworks, extensive basaltic lava flows, and various volcaniclastic deposits and tuffs, all of Moodies depositional age. Excellent outcrop exposures illustrate diverse and dynamic interactions between volcanic activities and shallow-water sedimentary processes; they constrain the conditions in which microbial communities thrived in estuarine and tidal environments: (1) When the Moodies Basaltic Lava flooded the basin, some lava fragments and pillows were reworked as boulder-sized conglomerate clasts and in gravelly sandstones while still plastic and presumably hot. (2) Aerodynamically shaped ejecta of mafic lava and common tephra shards in cross-bedded sandstones demonstrate explosive lava-water interactions. (3) Dacitic (lapilli) tuffs up to several m thick were eroded by estuarine channels and filled back-beach lagoons, modifying and smothering concurrent aqueous transport of epiclastic sediment. (4) The paleo-groundwater table and the MIC interacted vigorously by in situ fluidization of poorly to unconsolidated sediment. This led to entrainment of grains and sandstone xenoliths in mafic (sub-)volcanics, widespread peperite formation, and formation of lava-filled fractures and abundant quartz veins in surficially consolidated sandstones. The proximity of numerous shallow intrusives, lavas, and volcanic tephra to the tidal-zone habitat of abundant benthic microbial mats provided microorganisms with readily accessible thermal and chemical energy. Heavy mineral lags in the estuaries, combined with potentially aggressive weathering of felsic to ultramafic volcanic rock, released ample nutrients as colloidally-bound transition metals and phosphorus. Drying-and-wetting cycles on tidal flats and coastal plains, the high porosity and permeability of the well-sorted quartzose sand in shallow water, the