Spatial distribution of drinking, irrigation water quality, and health risk indices of high-altitude lakes

High-altitude lakes (HAL) play a key role in several ecological services of the environment by managing the water supply and flood control. The slow rate of inflowing contaminant circulation results in a buildup of higher levels of contamination level and makes these lakes more vulnerable. The present study focused on determining HAL's water quality parameters (WQP) in the Swat District, northern Pakistan. Water samples (n = 32) were collected and analyzed for basic parameters, anions, and potentially harmful elements (PHE). Results of examined parameters were noted under WHO threshold values, except for a few samples of iron (Fe) and arsenic (As). The concentrations of WQP in HAL were used to calculate drinking and irrigation water quality indices (WQI). Results revealed that the water of HAL was excellent and suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes. Gibbs plot and Piper model were used to identify water as a mixed type and source characterization of rock dominance. Water quality data were used for average daily dose (ADD) and hazard quotient (HQ) to find HAL water's potential health risks. The highest ADD value of 188 μg/kg-day was observed for nitrate (NO3), and the lowest of 0.31 μg/kg-day was noted for arsenic (As). However, maximum HQ values of 0.18 were reported for As and were observed to be less than the threshold of 1. Therefore, based on water quality, the HAL was recommended for use in drinking, domestic, and irrigation purposes. •Water contamination was noted under World Health Organization (WHO) threshold values.•Water contaminants like iron and arsenic surpassed the WHO threshold valuess•The highest average daily dose value was observed for nitrate intake of water.•Arsenic showed higher hazard quotient values and was observed less than 1.•Drinking and irrigation quality indices were categorized as excellent and good.