Extraction of rare earths from bastnaesite concentrates: A critical review and perspective for the future

Sustainable development strategy of bastnaesite concentrates. [Display omitted] •The history of the metallurgical technology for bastnaesite is summarized.•The state-of-the-art processes for bastnaesite concentrates are critically reviewed.•Some recently developed methods towards cleaner production are introduced.•The prospects and recommendations for bastnaesite processing are provided.•Multiple factors should be considered for sustainable development. Considering the indispensable role of rare earth elements in the field of modern high technology, the efficient exploitation and utilization of rare earth resources is of great importance. As one of the world's major rare earth minerals, bastnaesite significantly bears on scientific development and social progress. In order to provide some reference for future research and production, this paper retraces the history of the metallurgical processes of bastnaesite concentrates and critically reviews the current commercial industrial processes. Most of these processes are chemical and energy intensive, and the discharge of large quantities of low-grade waste has a serious negative impact on the ecological environment. The recently developed methods in laboratory scale towards cleaner production are then evaluated. More improvements are still needed to further simplify the process and reduce the reliance on strong acidic and alkali chemicals as well as the demand for energy. According to these evaluations, the prospects for process optimization are discussed, and the areas where further research is needed are suggested. To achieve sustainable development of the rare earth resources in bastnaesite, it is essential for the design of ideal process to comprehensively consider environmental impact, human health, economic benefits and resource utilization efficiency.