From land-based to people-based: Spatiotemporal cooling effects of peri-urban parks and their driving factors in China

•“People-based” driving factors, such as park age and per capita GDP, are incorporated.•42.3 % of the parks show decreased cooling intensity from 2000 to 2021.•Park ages between 31 and 35 have the most significant positive effect.•Park size is insignificant in affecting cooling intensity.•Combining blue and green spaces in parks results in a more pronounced cooling effect. Peri-urban areas are essential for human habitation and provide significant green spaces to improve the thermal environment, especially when urban land is limited. Understanding the factors influencing the cooling intensity of peri-urban parks is crucial for guiding decision-making in climate-responsive urban planning and management. However, relevant studies generally focus on the short-term cooling effect of urban parks, and the effect of “people-based” socio-demographics, such as park age, have rarely been analyzed. This study focuses on a comprehensive spatiotemporal analysis of 647 national forest parks in urban peripheries across China from 2000 to 2021. It considers three categories of driving factors: park morphology, landscape patterns, and social demographic characteristics. The findings reveal that (1) In contrast to urban parks, the geometric morphology of peri-urban parks has limited influence on cooling intensity. (2) The landscape pattern within the park significantly affects the cooling intensity. The proportion of woodland in the park increases year by year, and the negative impact of cropland on the cooling intensity decreases from −4.788 in 2000 to −0.547 in 2021. Besides, the negative impact of impervious surfaces has increased, with the coefficient decreasing from −1.022 in 2000 to −1.877 in 2021. (3) Park age significantly promotes cooling intensity when the park is between 31 and 35 years old. (4) The increase in per capita GDP and population density are associated with diminishing cooling intensity. (5) Heterogeneous analysis results reveal variations in cooling effects among parks in different climate zones. Peri-urban parks that combine blue and green spaces exhibit a more pronounced cooling effect. These research outcomes offer valuable insights for designing, planning, and managing parks and ecosystems in China, which can enhance urban climate resilience and the well-being of urban residents.