Exploring the potential health and ecological damage of lead–zinc production activities in China: A life cycle assessment perspective

Lead and zinc are indispensable nonferrous metals in the current industrialized society because of their position as raw materials for various industrial products. However, the massive environmental burden imposed by the activities of the lead–zinc industry will trigger potential social impacts. This study systematically evaluated the environmental and social economic burden of lead–zinc production activities at the national level during the entire industrial chain via life cycle assessment coupled with economic assessment method. China, the world's largest lead and zinc metal producer, was used as an example. Results demonstrated that in 2018, the national values of the potential threats to human health, ecosystem quality, and social economy were 3.55 × 105 DALY, 1.27 × 104 species. yr, and 3.90 × 1010 $, respectively. The potential social economic impact of China's lead–zinc production increased by 49% from 2008 to 2018. Direct emission was the primary contributor in most environmental impact categories (i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity, particulates formation, non-carcinogens, and carcinogens), except for global warming, in which electricity generation was the main contributor. Heavy metals emitted during the mining and dressing stage provided the predominant contribution to ecosystem quality degradation. Copper discharged into water was identified as a key substance that accounted for 59% of the overall potential threats. Henan, Hunan, and Yunnan provinces were the dominant provinces contributing to the overall social economic impacts of lead–zinc smelting. Additionally, association analysis indicated a significant correlation between the lead–zinc smelting activities and multiple cancers (e.g., stomach, brain, liver, and colon cancers). Adopting environmentally-friendly and cost-effectiveness wastewater treatment technology (e.g., adsorption) or water reuse is recommended to reduce heavy metal emissions. The development of renewable electricity and implementing cross-regional electricity transmission options have important benefits for reducing the environmental and social economic burden of the lead–zinc production activities. The application of long-term marginal power would alleviate the environmental burden in global warming category by 32.1%. The dust removal technologies of selective catalytic reduction, electrostatic precipitator, and wet flue gas desulfurization are implemented in combination to remove carcinogenic heavy metals from the air to red