The effect of freeze-thaw cycles and sulfuric acid attack separately on the compressive strength and microstructure of 3D-printed air-entrained concrete

3D-printed concrete (3DPC) is a promising technique for constructing structures and intricate designs. To ensure the successful performance of these structures throughout their service life, it is essential to understand their long-term properties and durability. While the use of air-entraining additives can enhance the durability of concrete against freeze-thaw cycles, investigating their impact on other properties is crucial. This study examines the effect of freeze-thaw cycles and sulfuric acid attack on the durability of 3D-printed concrete containing air-entraining additives. The results indicate that, in addition to improving resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, air-entraining additives also increases resistance to sulfuric acid attack. The drop in compressive strength of the samples containing air-entrained additive (0.08–0.12 % AEA) is 1.4–5.3 % less than the control samples against the freezing and thawing cycles. Examining the mechanisms of action of these invasive agents also shows this. Creating intentional voids to reduce the internal pressure of water expansion during freezing and reducing the number and width of possible microcracks are the dominant mechanisms of air-entraining additives against freeze-thaw cycles. Besides, their performance mechanisms during acid attacks are somewhat similar. Analysis of elements created in the matrix of the samples after acid attack indicates a decrease in calcium concentration and an increase in silica concentration. Among the observed reactions, the second reaction prevails, leading to the breakdown of the C-S-H structure into gypsum and silica hydroxide. This phenomenon is associated with changes in acid concentration. However, the presence of air bubbles causes surplus plate-like Calcium hydroxide crystals resulting from the elevated cement content in printed mixes to form within these bubbles, making them susceptible to damage and fracture during freeze-thaw and acid attacks. •For the proper performance of 3DPC, in addition to its fresh and rheological properties, its durable and long-term properties should be evaluated.•Although the primary purpose of using air-entrained admixture is improving the frost resistance, that can affect other properties of concrete.•Analyzing the microstructure of 3DPCs helps to better understand the performance mechanisms of these mixtures against aggressive agents.