Extrusion-based concrete 3D printing from a material perspective: A state-of-the-art review

This paper provides a comprehensive review of the material behaviour for extrusion-based concrete 3D printing spanning from the early age to long-term performance. We begin with a discussion on the recent progress on the understanding of early-age behaviour. Following this, the mechanical response in the hardened state, and the different strategies to introduce reinforcement are reviewed. Finally, we present insights and perspectives on the transport mechanisms in printed concrete to assess the long-term performance, and also discuss the overall impact of construction by concrete 3D printing on sustainability.