A comprehensive review of nanomaterials synthesis: Physical, chemical, and biological approaches and emerging challenges

Physical, chemical, and biological approaches are used in the manufacturing of nanomaterial; each has advantages and disadvantages of its own. Physical techniques like ball milling and laser ablation offer a regulated size distribution and great purity, but they cost a lot of money and energy. Particle dimensions and shape can be precisely controlled using chemical techniques, such as sol-gel as well as chemical vapor deposition. However, these processes frequently involve toxic chemicals and result in dangerous byproducts. Viral, plant, and microbe synthesis is achieved through biological processes. Enzymatic reduction & capping are harnessed by microbial synthesis, although it can be sluggish and necessitates careful management of growing conditions. Plant-based synthesis, which offers a more environmentally friendly option but with variable particle size, employs phytochemicals for stabilization and reduction. This review aims to direct future study and implementation in nanotechnology by thoroughly comparing various approaches and highlighting their operational processes, environmental consequences, and possibilities for large-scale manufacturing. •Detailed exploration of physical, chemical, and biological methods highlighting innovative approaches and advancements.•Bridging the gap between physics, chemistry, and biology, showcasing how interdisciplinary collaboration drives progress in nanotechnology.•In-depth analysis of the current challenges in nanomaterial synthesis, including scalability, reproducibility, and environmental impact.•Case studies demonstrate the practical applications of synthesized nanomaterials in medicine, electronics, environmental remediation, and many more.•Projections and recommendations for future research directions, emphasizing sustainable practices and potential breakthroughs in nanotechnology.