Paracetamol in diverse water sources: health hazards and treatment efficacy emphasizing adsorption techniques—a review

The escalating use of pharmaceuticals, particularly analgesic and antipyretic drugs, due to the rise of emerging ailments has led to a significant environmental concern, that is, increased presence of paracetamol in various water sources. This surge is predominantly linked to heightened paracetamol consumption by individuals seeking relief from COVID-19 symptoms. Consequently, the contamination poses health risk to those consuming affected water, primarily due to the production of toxic compound such as 4-aminophenol, known for its liver damaging effects. This review addresses the surging production and consumption of paracetamol to mitigate water contamination. Essential measures for efficient paracetamol removal from water sources are emphasized. The wastewater is the most affected by paracetamol, with a high concentration compared to the other sources. A few other contemporary treatment methods are covered, with an emphasis on the adsorption process. Adsorption is one of the predominant approaches that has been extensively researched and applied to treat pharmaceutical pollutants, with a high removal percentage reaching 98% by using activated carbon as an adsorbent. The use of efficient adsorbents that have previously been employed for paracetamol elimination will be discussed. The paper also provides a concise interpretation of the mechanisms involved in paracetamol adsorption, presenting an innovative perspective on the efficacy of this process as an excellent method for removal.