Archaeobotanical evidence reveals the human–environment interactions during the 9th–13th centuries at Turpan, Xinjiang on the ancient Silk Road

The ancient Silk Road was a link of economic-cultural exchanges and religious communication between China and the West. Turpan in Xinjiang is an important site on this road and was once one of the areas where Buddhism flourished in the Western Regions. However, the relationship between environment, agricultural activity and Buddhism has received little attention. Here we analyzed the adobe samples from the Bezikelike Grottoes, Turpan for pollen, plant remains and charcoal, and reconstructed a desert steppe vegetation under warm-humid conditions during the period of 9th–13th centuries. In particular the climate of middle 9th–10th centuries was quite pleasant, with a mean annual temperature of 14.2 °C and mean annual precipitation of 880 mm. Ancient people planted economic crops such as grape ( Vitis vinifera ) and cultivated cereals, including broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum ), wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) and barley ( Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste ), indicating agricultural production activities were well-developed at that time. Further comparison with the oasis environment of the 5th century suggested that the development of agriculture may have created favourable environmental conditions for the flourishing of Buddhism at that time. This finding provides a new perspective for understanding the interaction between environment and humans on the ancient Silk Road.