Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and Their Services

Ocean and coastal ecosystems support life on Earth and many aspects of human well-being. Covering two-thirds of the planet, the ocean hosts vast biodiversity and modulates the global climate system by regulating cycles of heat, water and elements, including carbon. Marine systems are central to many cultures, and they also provide food, minerals, energy and employment to people. Since previous assessments1, new laboratory studies, field observations and process studies, a wider range of model simulations, Indigenous knowledge, and local knowledge have provided increasing evidence on the impacts of climate change on ocean and coastal systems, how human communities are experiencing these impacts, and the potential solutions for ecological and human adaptation.