Aqueous-Phase Differentiation and Speciation of Fe3+ and Fe2+ Using Water-Stable Photoluminescent Lanthanide-Based Metal–Organic Framework

Fe2+ is vital to O2 transportation and photosynthesis regulated by oxidases and reductases. On the other hand, Fe3+ is detrimental due to its irreversible binding to O2. Hence there is a need for selective identification of Fe3+ from aqueous systems in the presence of Fe2+. However, given their close chemical nature, it is not straightforward to differentiate them. Fe2+ and Fe3+ are typically sensed and differentiated using magnetic measurements, Mossbauer, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, or EXAFS, which are complex and equipment intensive techniques. In comparison, the fluorescence technique is advantageous in terms of time and accessibility. Although readily available lanthanide salts exhibit fluorescence, they are weak, and to serve as an optical probe, their luminescence has to be enhanced via ligand design. Hence we have designed a chromophoric ligand that can covalently bind to lanthanides and enhance its fluorescence intensity, and it binds selectively to Fe3+ through its nitrogen centers. It detects Fe3+ from low concentration (∼100 μM) aqueous solutions, with fast response time (