Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology

Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology

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Hauptverfasser: Kohlgrüber, Klemens 1952- (VerfasserIn), Bierdel, Michael (VerfasserIn), Rust, Harald 1949-2021 (VerfasserIn)
Format: Buch
Sprache:German
Veröffentlicht: Munich Carl Hanser Verlag [2022]
Schlagworte:
Kunststoffverarbeitung
Compoundierverfahren
Aufbereitung
Polymercompound
Polymere
Kunststoff
Compunding
Plastics Production
Preparation
FBKTCOMP: Mischen und Compoundieren
PLAS2021
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Datensatz im Suchindex

DE-BY-TUM_call_number 0001/2022 A 1615
DE-BY-TUM_katkey 2620275
DE-BY-TUM_media_number 040009281414
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adam_text CONTENTS THE AUTHORS ............................................................... V IN MEMORIAM .......................................................................................... IX PREFACE ..................................................................................................... XI PART A INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCESSING OF POLYMERS ....................... 1 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 3 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER, MICHAEL BIERDEL 1.1 PLASTICS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE ................................................................. 3 1.2 PROCESSING AND COMPOUNDING ................................................................... 4 1.3 RECYCLING OF PLASTICS ................................................................................... 5 1.4 GUIDE TO THE INDIVIDUAL CHAPTERS OF THIS BOOK ........................................ 7 2 POLYMER PROCESSING - PROCESS TECHNOLOGY OF POLYMER PRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 9 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 9 2.2 POLYMER PROCESSING DURING THE POLYMER SYNTHESIS IN THE PRIMARY PRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 14 2.3 POLYMER PROCESSING AFTER THE POLYMER PRODUCTION - COMPOUNDING .... 17 2.3.1 MAIN TEMPERATURE WINDOW WHEN COMPOUNDING FOR FINISH MIXTURE ............................................................................. 18 2.3.2 MIXING IN THE EXTRUDER ............................................................... 19 2.3.3 TEMPERATURE AND TIME LIMITS FOR COMPOUNDING ........................ 22 2.3.4 CHALLENGES WHEN COMPOUNDING ................................................. 25 2.3.5 ENERGY REQUIREMENT WHEN COMPOUNDING .................................. 28 2.3.6 RANGE OF PERFORMANCE OF EXTRUDER ............................................. 32 2.3.7 THROUGHPUT AND PERFORMANCE DENSITY ....................................... 35 2.3.8 PERFORMANCE DENSITY IN THE MELT AREA ........................................ 39 2.3.9 ENERGY BALANCE AND PRODUCT DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE ................ 40 2.3.10 STATIC MIXERS ................................................................................. 46 2.3.11 MIXING PERFORMANCE, MIXING QUALITY, CROSS MIXING, LONGITUDINAL MIXING ..................................................................... 49 2.3.11.1 MIXING PERFORMANCE .................................................... 49 2.3.11.2 MIXING PERFORMANCE AND MIXING QUALITY .................. 51 2.3.11.3 CROSS AND LONGITUDINAL MIXING ................................... 53 2.3.11.4 RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION ...................................... 54 2.3.11.5 MEAN RESIDENCE TIME .................................................. 58 PART B PROCESSING IN POLYMER PRODUCTION ...................................... 61 3 DEVOLATILIZING DEVICES ................................................................... 63 3.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF DEVOLATILIZATION .............................................................. 63 HEINO THIELE 3.1.1 PHASE EQUILIBRIUM ....................................................................... 65 3.1.2 MACROSCOPIC MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE ...................................... 68 3.1.3 QUANTITIES INFLUENCING THE CHANGE IN CONCENTRATION ................. 69 3.1.4 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 79 3.2 POLYMER PRODUCTION AND DEGASSING TASKS ................................................ 81 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 3.2.1 GENERAL CHALLENGES AT THE DEGASSING OF VOLATILES FROM POLYMERS ....................................................................................... 82 3.2.2 SPECIAL FEATURES AT THE DEGASSING OF POLYMERS WITH HIGH CONTENT OF VOLATILES AND LIMITATION OF FINISH DEGASSING .. 83 3.3 OVERVIEW OF DEVICES AND MACHINES FOR COMPOUNDING WITH POLYMER DEGASSING ................................................................................................... 84 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 3.3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 84 3.3.2 DEVICES WITH ROTATING COMPONENTS AND MACHINES .................... 86 3.4 APPARATUS-BASED POLYMER EVAPORATION .................................................... 90 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 3.4.1 TUBE EVAPORATOR ........................................................................... 91 3.4.2 PROCESS AND DEVICES FOR FINISH DEGASSING FOR VERY LOW RESIDUAL CONTENTS IN THE POLYMER ................................................ 98 3.4.3 GENERAL SCHEME OF AN APPARATUS-BASED EVAPORATION STAGE .... 103 3.4.4 PRODUCT QUALITY ............................................................................. 104 3.5 DEGASSING OF POLYMERS IN PURGE BINS ....................................................... 108 HARALD WILMS, HANS SCHNEIDER 3.5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 108 3.5.2 PROCESS REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGASSING OF SOLIDS .......................... 109 3.5.3 BASICS OF PARTICLE DEGASSSING ..................................................... 110 3.5.4 DETERMINATION OF DEGASSING PROCESS PARAMETERS ...................... 112 3.5.4.1 OVEN TESTS ..................................................................... 114 3.5.4.2 BATCH TRIALS ................................................................... 114 3.5.4.3 PILOT PLANT TESTS ..................................... 114 3.5.4.4 CRITERIA FOR THE GAS FLOW RATE FOR DEGASSING ............ 116 3.5.5 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGASSING SILO .............................. 116 3.5.6 HEATING OF BULK SOLIDS ................................................................. 119 3.5.7 ENERGY-EFFICIENT PLANT CONCEPTS ................................................. 120 3.5.8 COMPARABLE APPLICATIONS ............................................................. 121 3.5.9 SUMMARY ....................... 121 PART C PROCESSING AFTER POLYMER PRODUCTION - COMPOUNDING ... 123 4 REQUIREMENTS, PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT, ADDITIVES, SOURCES OF FAULTS ........................................................ 125 4.1 COMPOUNDING REQUIREMENTS FROM THE COMPOUNDER S PERSPECTIVE .... 125 THOMAS SCHULDT 4.1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 125 4.1.2 ECONOMICS ..................................................................................... 125 4.1.3 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS ALONG THE PROCESS CHAIN .................... 127 4.1.3.1 MATERIAL HANDLING ....................................................... 127 4.1.3.2 RAW MATERIAL PRE-TREATMENT ........................................ 129 4.1.3.3 PREMIXING ...................................................................... 129 4.1.3.4 EXTRUDER AND WEAR ....................................................... 131 4.1.3.5 COOLING AND PELLETIZING ................................................ 135 4.1.3.6 PACKAGING ...................................................................... 136 4.1.4 QUALITY CONTROL ............................................................................. 137 4.1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS ............................................................... 139 4.1.6 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................... 139 4.2 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................. 140 THOMAS SCHULDT 4.2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 140 4.2.2 TYPES OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ................................................... 140 4.2.3 BUILDING BLOCKS OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT .................................... 142 4.2.3.1 EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY ............................................... 143 4.2.3.2 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY ...................................................... 143 4.2.3.3 FORMULATION .................................................................. 143 4.2.4 INGREDIENTS ................................................................................... 144 4.2.4.1 ADDITIVES ........................................................................ 144 4.2.4.2 FILLERS ........................................................................... 145 4.2.4.3 PIGMENTS ........................................................................ 146 4.2.5 INNOVATION ..................................................................................... 148 4.2.6 QUALITY CONTROL .............................................................................. 149 4.2.7 SCALE-UP ......................................................................................... 150 4.3 ADDITIVES FOR POLYMERS - FROM POLYMER TO PLASTIC .................................. 152 HERMANN DIEM 4.3.1 BLENDS ........................................................................................... 152 4.3.1.1 DEFINITION OF BLENDS ....................................................... 152 4.3.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MULTI-PHASE SYSTEMS ........................ 153 4.3.1.2.1 POLYMER BLENDS ................................ 153 4.3.1.2.2 DRY BLENDS ................................................ 155 4.3.2 ADDITIVES ....................................................................................... 155 4.3.2.1 DEFINITION OF ADDITIVES ................................................... 155 4.3.2.2 EFFECTS AND MODE OF OPERATION OF THE ADDITIVES ........ 156 4.3.2.2.1 PLASTICIZERS ................................................ 156 4.3.2.2.2 STABILIZERS .................................................. 156 4.3.2.3 INCORPORATION OF ADDITIVES INTO POLYMERS .................. 158 4.3.3 FILLERS ............................................................................................. 159 4.3.3.1 DEFINITION OF FILLERS ...................................................... 159 4.3.3.2 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF FILLERS ....................... 159 4.3.3.3 ASPECT RATIO .................................................................. 160 4.4 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES REGARDING SOURCES OF FAULL/AVOIDANCE OF FAULTS DURING COMPOUNDING .................................................................... 161 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 4.4.1 BLACK SPECKS ................................................................................. 163 4.4.2 SOURCES AT DOSING AND MIXING ...................................................... 167 4.4.2.1 DEMIXING ........................................................................ 167 4.4.2.2 DOSING SYSTEM .............................................................. 168 4.4.2.3 MIXING OF POLYMER WITH ADDITIVES .............................. 169 4.4.3 DRIVE-MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE .................................................... 170 4.4.4 FAULTS IN TESTS WITH SMALL EXTRUDERS FOR SCALE-UP PURPOSES ... 172 5 COMPOUNDING WITH CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS ........... 177 5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 177 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 5.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF THE CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER ................ 178 5.1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF THE CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER .......... 180 5.1.3 RANGE OF SERVICES AND POWER DENSITY OF CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS ................................................................. 181 5.1.4 PARAMETERS IN DEPENDENCE ON THE DIAMETER RATIO .......... 183 5.1.4.1 STRENGTH AND THROUGHPUT AS A FUNCTION OF DA/D T .... 183 5.1.4.2 PRESSURE AND POWER CHARACTERISTIC AS A FUNCTION OFDJDT ......................................................................... 186 5.1.4.3 MAXIMUM PRODUCT VOLUME .......................................... 188 5.1.4.4 INNER SURFACE OF THE HOUSING TO MAXIMUM PRODUCT SPACE ............................................................... 189 5.1.4.5 OUTLOOK ......................................................................... 192 5.1.5 SPECIAL TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE CO-ROTATING EXTRUDER .... 192 5.2 TASKS AND DESIGN OF THE PROCESSING ZONES OF A COMPOUNDING EXTRUDER 194 REINER RUDOLF, MICHAEL BIERDEL 5.2.1 MELT CONVEYING ZONE .................................................................... 195 5.2.2 SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE ................................................................. 201 5.2.3 PLASTIFICATION ZONE ................... 204 5.2.4 DISTRIBUTIVE AND DISPERSIVE MIXING ZONE .................................... 209 5.2.5 DEVOLATILIZATION ZONE ................................................................... 214 5.2.6 PRESSURE BUILD-UP ZONE ............................................................... 216 5.2.7 COMPLETE SCREW CONFIGURATION ................................................... 219 5.2.8 SPECIFIC ENERGY INPUT ................................................................... 222 5.2.9 RESIDENCE TIME CHARACTERISTICS ................................................. 225 5.3 PROCESS AND SCREW CONCEPTS FOR MACHINES WITH HIGH THROUGHPUTS .... 229 FRANK LECHNER 5.3.1 DEVELOPMENT TO HIGH TORQUES, VOLUMES, AND ROTATIONS ............ 229 5.3.2 PARAMETERS AND PROCESS LIMITS OF CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW KNEADERS ................................................................... 230 5.3.3 PROCESS LENGTH AND SCREW DEVELOPMENT .................................... 233 5.3.4 MAXIMUM POSSIBLE SCREW SPEED ................................................. 234 5.3.5 TORQUE-LIMITED PROCESSES ........................................................... 235 5.3.6 VOLUME-LIMITED PROCESSES ........................................................... 237 5.3.7 QUALITY-LIMITED PROCESSES ........................................................... 241 5.3.8 PROCESS CONCEPT FOR ECONOMICAL COMPOUNDING .......................... 244 5.3.9 OUTLOOK ........................................................................................... 247 5.4 SCREW DESIGNS FOR HIGHLY FILLED POLYMERS (AND DOSING STRATEGIES) .... 247 SEBASTIAN FRAAS 5.4.1 WHY FILLER COMPOUNDS? ............................................................... 247 5.4.2 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS ..................................................................... 248 5.4.3 MATERIAL-SPECIFIC INFLUENCING FACTORS .......................................... 248 5.4.3.1 INFLUENCE OF FILLER .......................................................... 248 5.4.3.1.1 ORIGIN/MINING ......................................... 250 5.4.3.1.2 PARTICLE SIZE AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION ............................................. 250 5.4.3.1.3 COATING ...................................................... 250 5.4.3.1.4 MOISTURE CONTENT ...................................... 251 5.4.3.2 POLYMER AND ADDITIVES ................................................... 252 5.4.4 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY ....................................................................... 252 5.4.4.1 CONVEYING TECHNOLOGY .................................................. 254 5.4.4.2 DOSING EQUIPMENT ........................................................ 255 5.4.4.3 DOWNSTREAM EQUIPMENT .............................................. 256 5.4.4.4 BARREL SETUP OF AN EXTRUDER FOR HIGHLY FILLED COMPOUNDS ................................................................... 256 5.4.4.5 SCREW DESIGN ................................................................ 260 5.4.4.5.1 MELTING ZONE ............................................ 260 5.4.4.5.2 FILLER ADDITION AND WETTING .................... 261 5.4.4.5.3 DISPERSION ZONE ........................................ 261 5.4.4.5.4 VACUUM AND DISCHARGE ZONE .................. 262 5.4.4.6 ENTIRE SYSTEM ................................................................ 262 5.5 COMPOUNDING OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS ................................ 263 DIJAN ILIEW, STEPHEN KROLL, ANDREA SIEBERT-RATHS 5.5.1 PRE-KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PROCESSING OF NATURAL FIBERS .................. 265 5.5.2 DESIGN AND PARAMETERIZATION OF THE PROCESS UNIT OF A CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER ................................................ 271 5.6 FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMOPLASTIC FOAM EXTRUSION BY MEANS OF PARALLEL TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS ................................................................. 279 LUKAS VOGEL 5.6.1 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF FOAMS .................................. 281 5.6.2 PROCESS STEPS FOR FOAM EXTRUSION ................................................ 283 5.6.2.1 PROVISION OF THERMOPLASTIC MELTS ................................ 284 5.6.2.2 ADDITION AND ADMIXING OF THE PROPELLANT (BLOWING AGENT) ............................................................ 284 5.6.2.3 INJECTING THE BLOWING AGENT AND CONDITIONING OF THE MELT ......................................................................... 285 5.6.2 A DISCHARGE OF THE MELT THROUGH THE DIE .................. 287 5.6.2.5 GROWTH OF CELLS AND STABILIZATION OF THE FOAM STRUCTURE ................................................... 289 5.6.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS FOR FOAM EXTRUSION .................................... 293 5.7 SCREW CONFIGURATIONS ................................................................................. 298 MICHAEL BIERDEL 5.8 MATERIALS, COATINGS, WEAR TECHNOLOGY ..................................................... 313 OLIVER KAYSER 5.8.1 REQUIREMENTS TO THE COMPONENTS FOR COMPOUNDING ................ 313 5.8.2 MATERIALS AND HEAT TREATMENT ..................................................... 314 5.8.2.1 TEMPERING STEELS AND NITRIDING STEELS ...................... 315 5.8.2.2 HOT-WORK STEELS ........................................................... 315 5.8.2.3 ALLOYED COLD-WORK STEELS ............................................ 316 5.8.2.4 HIGH-SPEED STEELS ....................................................... 317 5.8.3 EXECUTION OF COMPONENTS OF TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS .................. 317 5.8.4 PROCESS OF SURFACE LAYER HARDENING ........................................... 319 5.8.4.1 WEAR PROTECTION BY NITRIDING ............. 320 5.8.4.2 AVOIDANCE OF ADHESIVE WEAR DUE TO NITRIDING ............ 323 5.8.4.3 AVOIDANCE OF PITTING CORROSION BY NITRIDING .............. 324 5.8.4.4 SPECIAL PROCESS FOR MAINTAINING CORROSION PROTECTION ....................................................................... 324 5.8.5 WEAR PROTECTION BY COATINGS ....................................................... 326 5.8.5.1 HARD CHROMIUM ............................................................ 326 5.8.5.2 CHEMICAL NICKEL ........................................................... 328 5.8.5.3 THIN LAYERS OF HARD MATERIAL ...................................... 329 5.8.5.3.1 PHYSICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION ...................... 329 5.8.5.3.2 CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION .................... 333 5.8.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR APPLICATION ............................................. 336 5.8.7 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK ................................................................. 337 6 COMPOUNDING AND POLYMER PROCESSING WITH DIFFERENT EXTRUDER TYPES ....................................................................... 341 6.1 EXTRUDER TYPES - INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 341 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 6.1.1 COMPOUNDING AND PROCESSING WITH DIFFERENT EXTRUDER TYPES 341 6.1.2 SINGLE-SCREW EXTRUDERS ............................................................... 344 6.1.3 GEAR PUMPS ................................................................................... 345 6.1.4 CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS ............................................. 346 6.1.5 COUNTER-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS .................................... 347 6.1.6 MULTI-SCREW EXTRUDERS: RINGEXTRUDERS AND PLANETARY ROLLER EXTRUDERS ......................................................... 348 6.1.7 NON-SCREW EXTRUDERS ................................................. 349 6.1.8 HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS ............................................................... 350 6.2 SINGLE-SCREW EXTRUDER ............................................................................... 351 GREGOR KARRENBERG 6.2.1 APPLICATIONS IN COMPOUNDING ..................................................... 351 6.2.2 DESIGN AND FUNCTION ..................................................................... 353 6.2.3 PLASTICIZING EXTRUDER ................................................................... 356 6.2.4 MELT EXTRUDER ............................................................................... 361 6.2.5 DEGASSING EXTRUDER ..................................................................... 362 6.2.6 MIXING ELEMENTS FOR SINGLE-SCREW EXTRUDERS ............................ 364 6.2.7 SCALE-UP METHODS ......................................................................... 367 6.3 THE RINGEXTRUDER ....................................................................................... 369 MICHAEL ERDMANN 6.3.1 MECHANICAL SETUP .......................................................................... 370 6.3.2 PRINCIPLE OF MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTIVE MIXING ........................ 373 6.3.3 DISPERSIVE MIXING .......................................................................... 374 6.3.4 DEGASSING EFFICIENCY ..................................................................... 375 6.3.5 HEAT TRANSFER - SURFACE/VOLUME RATIO ........................................ 376 6.3.6 WEAR PROTECTION ............................................................................. 377 6.3.7 EXTRUDER SERIES AND SCALE-UP ...................................................... 378 6.3.8 FIELDS OF APPLICATION ...................................................................... 379 6.3.8.1 PET RECYCLING ................................................................ 380 6.3.8.2 CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION OF RUBBER COMPOUNDS .......... 381 6.4 COUNTER-ROTATING INTERMESHING TWIN SCREWS .......................................... 387 ERNST KRUGER 6.4.1 UNDERSTANDING OF GELATION OF PVC AS A REQUIREMENT FOR UNDERSTANDING OF TWIN SCREWS .................................................... 388 6.4.2 STRUCTURE OF A PVC GRAIN .............................................................. 389 6.4.3 SCHEME OF PVC PROCESSING ............................................................ 390 6.4.4 MODEL OF PVC COMPOUNDING AND PROCESSING .............................. 390 6.4.5 LEVEL OF GELATION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES .............................. 391 6.4.6 FORMULATION COMPONENTS .............................................................. 392 6.4.7 HOMOGENEITY OF THE GELATION LEVEL .............................................. 392 6.4.8 HOMOGENEITY IN PVC PROCESSING .................................................. 393 6.4.9 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON GELATION HOMOGENEITY .................. 394 6.4.10 TEMPERATURE INSIDE THE 8TO0 ADAPTER .......................................... 394 6.4.11 BASICS OF SCREW DESIGN ................................................................... 395 6.4.11.1 ZONES OF A COUNTER-ROTATING TWIN SCREW .................... 396 6.4.11.2 SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE SCREW DESIGN OF COUNTER-ROTATING TWIN SCREWS .................................... 398 6.4.12 DESIGN AND WEAR ........................................................................... 399 6.5 PLANETARY ROLLER EXTRUDER ......................................................................... 404 ELARALD RUST, THOMAS BIRR, HOLGER LANGE 6.5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 404 6.5.2 MECHANICAL PRINCIPLE ................................................................... 405 6.5.3 CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................. 406 6.5.4 CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................. 407 6.5.5 CONSTRUCTION SIZES AND DESIGNATIONS .......................................... 408 6.5.6 CONVEYING AND WORKING PRINCIPLE .............................................. 410 6.5.6.1 PARTIALLY AND FULLY FILLED AREAS .................................. 411 6.5.7 PLANETARY SPINDLE CONFIGURATION .................................................. 412 6.5.7.1 TYPES OF PLANETARY SPINDLES ........................................ 413 6.5.7.2 PLANETARY SPINDLE LENGTHS ........................................... 416 6.5.7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF PLANETARY SPINDLES ............................... 418 6.5.8 INTERMEDIATE RINGS ....................................................................... 419 6.5.9 THE MODULAR SYSTEM ..................................................................... 422 6.5.10 FEEDING OF SOLIDS ........................................................................... 423 6.5.11 FEEDING OF LIQUIDS ....................................................................... 427 6.5.12 DEGASSING ..................................................................................... 429 6.5.13 SENSOR SYSTEM ............................................................................. 438 6.5.14 PERIPHERAL DEVICES ....................................................................... 440 6.6 OSCILLATING SCREW KNEADER OR CONTINUOUS KNEADER ................................ 442 HANS-ULRICH SIEGENTHALER 6.6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 442 6.6.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................................................................. 443 6.6.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE ..................... 444 6.6.4 SHEAR RATE ..................................................................................... 446 6.6.5 RESIDENCE TIME AND RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION .................... 448 6.6.6 TECHNICAL DESIGN ........................................................................... 450 6.6.6.1 MODULARITY ..................................................................... 450 6.6.6.2 LINERS ............... 452 6.6.6.3 SCREW ELEMENTS ........................................................... 454 6.6.6A KNEADING BOLTS AND TEETH ............................................. 456 6.6.6.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL ................................................... 458 6.6.6.6 PRESSURE BUILD-UP SYSTEMS ........................................... 461 6.6.7 APPLICATION FIELDS ......................................................................... 462 6.6.7.1 CABLE COMPOUNDS ......................................................... 463 6.6.7.2 ENGINEERING AND HIGH-PERFORMANCE PLASTICS ............... 464 6.6.7.3 PVC APPLICATIONS (GRANULATING AND CALENDERING) ... 465 6.6.7.4 THERMOSET APPLICATIONS ............................................. 466 6.6.7.5 POWDER COATINGS AND TONERS ......................................... 466 6.6.7.6 ANODE MASSES FOR ALUMINUM PRODUCTION ................... 467 6.6.7.7 SPECIALTIES ....................................................................... 467 6.6.7.3 FOOD APPLICATIONS ......................................................... 468 6.7 FARREL POMINI CONTINUOUS MIXERS ............................................................. 470 PETER GOHL, ROMAN KEBALO, JOE PEREIRA, STUART SARDINSKAS 6.7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 470 6.7.2 GENERAL MECHANICAL FEATURES ...................................................... 472 6.7.2.1 MECHANICAL FEATURES: MIXER ........................................ 472 6.7.2.2 MECHANICAL FEATURES: EXTRUDER .................................... 473 6.7.3 FCM CONFIGURATION ....................................................................... 473 6.7.3.1 FEED SECTION ................................................................. 473 6.7.3.2 MIXING SECTION .............................................................. 473 6.7. 3.3 APEX ZONE ....................................................................... 474 6.7.3.4 ROTOR ORIENTATION .......................................................... 475 6.7.4 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ................................................................ 478 6.7.4.1 HEATING AND COOLING ..................................................... 480 6.7.4.2 MIXER BODY SEGMENTS AND MIXING DAMS .................. 481 6.7.5 PROCESS FLEXIBILITY ......................................................................... 482 6.7.6 APPLICATIONS .................................................................................... 484 6.7.7 ENERGY SAVING ............................................................................... 485 6.7.8 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................... 487 6.8 EXTRUDER TYPES - COMPARISON ................................................................. 488 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER, MICHAEL BIERDEL 6.8.1 QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED PRIOR TO A COMPARISON ............................ 488 6.8.2 COSTS, OPERATING FIGURES, SPECIFIC ENERGY .................................. 490 6.8.3 CHARACTERISTIC PROCESS PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT EXTRUDER TYPES 496 6.8.4 DESCRIPTIVE EVALUATION OF EXTRUDERS WITH CURRENT THROUGHPUTS AND SIZES ....................................................................................... 500 6.9 MRS (MULTI-ROTATIONS SYSTEM) ................................................................. 510 AXEL HANNEMANN 6.9.1 MODE OF OPERATION ....................................................................... 510 6.9.1.1 FEEDING AND PLASTIFICATION IN THE MRS ......................... 510 6.9.1.2 THE DEGASSING DRUM - THE HEART OF THE MRS TECHNOLOGY ............................................................ 511 6.9.1.3 CONVEYING AND PUMPING ............................................... 514 6.9.2 CONTINUOUS MEASURE AND CONTROL OF PROCESS PARAMETERS .......... 514 6.9.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF ACQUISITION AND CONTROL OF THE PROCESS PARAMETERS MELT PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND VISCOSITY ............................................................... 514 6.9.2.2 CONTROL BY MEANS OF ONLINE VISCOMETER VIS .............. 514 6.9.3 ESSENTIAL PROCESS-RELATED INFLUENCING FACTORS DURING PET PROCESSING ............................................................................. 515 6.9.3.1 DRYING AND EXTRUSION .................................................. 515 6.9.4 PROCESSING OF OTHER POLYMERS ...................................................... 519 6.9.4.1 RECYCLING OF POLYOLEFINS ................................................ 519 6.9.4.2 MONOMER REMOVAL ........................................................ 521 6.9.4.3 DECONTAMINATION .......................................................... 524 6.9.5 ENERGY SAVINGS WITH THE MRS SYSTEM ........................................ 525 6.9.6 RESULTS ........................................................................................... 526 7 PROCESSING OF POLYMER MELTS WITH OTHER DEVICES AND MACHINES ................................................................................ 529 7.1 HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS ............................................................................. 529 OLIVER SEEK 7.1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 529 7.1.2 SINGLE-SHAFT HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS ......................................... 532 7.1.3 TWIN-SHAFT HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS ........................................... 534 7.1.3.1 REACOM ......................................................................... 534 7.1.3.2 REASIL ............................................................................. 535 7.1.4 PRODUCT TRANSPORT ......................................................................... 536 7.1.5 ENERGY INPUT ................................................................................. 537 7.1.6 AXIAL AND RADIAL MIXING BEHAVIOR ............................................. 538 7.1.7 DEVOLATILIZATION ............................................................................. 541 7.1.8 APPARATUS DESIGN AND SCALE-UP ................................................. 544 7.1.9 SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 546 7.2 COMPOUNDING OF POLYMERS BY MEANS OF CALENDER AND FLAT FILM LINES 548 HARALD RUST, STEFAN SEIBEL 7.2.1 HISTORY ........................................................................................... 548 7.2.2 CONTINUOUS FEEDING ..................................................................... 550 7.2.3 THE PLANETARY ROLLER EXTRUDER FOR CALENDER FEEDING ................ 550 7.2.4 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COMPOUNDING SYSTEMS ........................ 551 7.2.5 MODERN CALENDER LINES ............................................................... 552 7.2.6 TYPES OF PELLETIZING ....................................................................... 554 7.2.7 ROLL MILL AND STRAINER ................................................................... 556 7.2.8 ROLL MILL ......................................................................................... 556 7.2.9 STRAINER ......................................................................................... 556 7.2.10 EDGE TRIMS ..................................................................................... 558 7.2.11 DIFFERENT CALENDER TYPES ............................................................. 559 7.2.12 SPECIAL DESIGNS ............................................................................. 561 7.2.13 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CALENDERS AND CALANDRETTES ...................... 561 7.2.14 THE TASK OF THE CALENDER AND DIFFERENT CALENDER ROLLS ............. 562 7.2.15 THE SETUP AND MODE OF OPERATION OF A CALENDER ........................ 564 7.2.16 POSSIBILITIES OF CORRECTION ........................................................... 565 7.2.17 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS ........................................................... 566 7.2.18 COMPARISON OF THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE EDGE AREAS BETWEEN A CONVENTIONAL, PERIPHERALLY BORED ROLL AND A COILED ROLL ........................................................................... 566 7.2.19 STATIC AND THERMAL COMPARISON OF CALENDER ROLLS IN USE TODAY 567 7.2.20 SPEEDS AND SIZES ........................................................................... 567 7.2.21 THE MINI IMPRESSION ROLLER ......................................................... 569 7.2.22 THICKNESS MEASURING AND INSPECTION UNIT FOR CONTAMINATION . 570 7.2.23 WINDER ........................................................................................... 571 7.2.24 SHEET AND FILM PRODUCTION ............................................................ 572 7.2.24.1 GEAR PUMPS .................................................................. 572 7.2.24.2 FLAT FILM DIES ................................................................ 573 7.2.24.2.1 DIE CONSTRUCTION ALWAYS IS A COMPROMISE .............................................. 573 7.2.24.2.2 APPLICATION-SPECIFIC DIE EQUIPMENT .... 574 7.2.24.2.3 MULTI-LAYER EXTRUSION .............................. 574 7.2.25 CHILL ROLL LINE ................................................................................ 576 7.2.26 FLAT FILM LINE ............................................................................... 577 7.2.27 POLISHING ROLLS ................................................................................ 577 7.2.28 FOAM SHEETS OF 20 MM-200 MM .................................................. 579 7.2.29 VACUUM NAP FILM LINE ACCORDING TO THE FILM CASTING PRINCIPLE FOR CONSTRUCTION NAP FILM ............................................ 580 7.2.30 TPU FILM LINE FOR DIRECT EMBOSSING BETWEEN SILICONIZED FABRIC 581 7.2.31 FILM STRETCHING LINES .................................................................... 581 7.2.32 INTRODUCTION TO THE BIAX PROCESS USING THE EXAMPLE OF BOPP .. 582 7.2.32.1 RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY AND EXTRUSION .......................... 582 7.2.32.2 TDO (TRANSVERSAL DIRECTION ORIENTER) ........................ 583 7.3 MIXING AND DISPERSION ............................................................................. 585 7.3.1 FUNDAMENTALS: HOMOGENEOUS AND DISPERSIVE MIXING .............. 585 JORG KIRCHHOFF, MICHAEL BIERDEL 7.3.1.1 OVERVIEW, PRINCIPLES, AND EXPERIMENTS ...................... 585 7.3.1.1.1 HOMOGENEOUS MIXING - MIXING IN LAMINAR FLOW ............................................ 585 7.3.1.1.2 DISPERSIVE MIXING .................................... 591 7.3.1.1.3 DETERMINING THE MIXING QUALITY ............ 598 7.3.1.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL CALCULATIONS OF MIXING AND RESIDENCE TIME BEHAVIOR ............................................ 602 7.3.1.3 SUMMARY ....................................................................... 608 7.3.2 STATIC MIXERS ................................................................................. 609 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 7.3.2.1 INTRODUCTION, ADVANTAGES, AND DISADVANTAGES ........... 609 7.3.2.2 CONSTRUCTION TYPES ....................................................... 611 7.3.2.3 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY ...................................................... 616 7.3.2.3.1 PRESSURE LOSS AND MIXER EVALUATION .... 616 7.3.2.3.2 REDUCTION IN LAYER THICKNESS DEPENDING ON THE MIXING LENGTH - DISTRIBUTIVE MIXING .................................. 617 7.3.2.3.3 RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION .................. 618 7.3.2.3.4 POWER INPUT AND TEMPERATURE ................ 618 7.3.2.3.5 GAS DISPERSION ......................................... 620 7.3.2.3.6 MIXING-IN OF ADDITIVES ............................... 621 7.3.2.3.7 HEAT TRANSFER ............................................. 621 7.3.2.3.8 SCALE-UP OF THE MIXING FUNCTION ............. 622 7.3.2.4 STATIC MIXERS WITH INTERNAL TEMPERATURE CONTROL ... 624 7.3.2.4.1 SMR HEAT EXCHANGER ................................ 625 7.3.2.4.2 COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGER WITH TEMPERATURE-CONTROLLED X INSTALLATIONS 625 PART D FURTHER IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF A PROCESSING FACILITY 627 8 BULK MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY IN POLYMER PROCESSING .................... 629 8.1 SILO DESIGN FOR FLOW AND STABILITY ............................................................. 629 HARALD WILMS 8.1.1 SILOS DISCHARGE PROBLEMS ............................................................. 629 8.1.1.1 ARCHING .......................................................................... 629 8.1.1.2 RATHOLING ........................................................................ 630 8.1.1.3 ERRATIC FLOW .................................................................. 631 8.1.1.4 FLUSHING ........................................................................ 631 8.1.1.5 SEGREGATION .................................................................... 631 8.1.1.6 LEVEL CONTROL ................................................................ 633 8.1.1.7 RESIDENCE DISTRIBUTION ................................................. 634 8.1.2 FLOW PROFILES IN SILOS ................................................................... 635 8.1.3 SHEAR TESTS TO DETERMINE THE FLOW PROPERTIES ............................ 637 8.1.4 SILO DESIGN FOR FLOW ..................................................................... 641 8.1.4.1 HOPPER WALL INCLINATION FOR MASS FLOW ...................... 642 8.1.4.2 OUTLET DIAMETER TO AVOID ARCHING IN MASS FLOW ......... 645 8.1.4.3 OUTLET DIAMETER TO AVOID RATHOLING IN FUNNEL FLOW .. 649 8.1.4.4 INFLUENCE OF TIME CONSOLIDATION ................................... 653 8.1.4.5 APPLICATION OF DISCHARGE DEVICES AND DISCHARGE AIDS ............................................................. 654 8.1.5 STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF SILO DESIGN ............................................... 656 8.1.5.1 PRESSURES IN SILOS .......................................................... 656 8.1.5.2 PRESSURE PEAKS IN SILOS ................................................ 657 8.1.5.3 ASYMMETRIC FLOW CHANNELS ......................................... 658 8.2 BLENDING SILOS FOR PLASTIC COMPOUNDING AND PROCESSING ........................ 662 HARALD WILMS 8.2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 662 8.2.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR BLENDING SILOS ................................................. 664 8.2.3 SURVEY ON BLENDING SILO DESIGNS ............................................... 666 8.2.3.1 BLENDING SILOS WITH MECHANICAL ENERGY INPUT ........... 666 8.2.3.2 BLENDING SILOS WITH PNEUMATIC ENERGY INPUT ............ 667 8.2.3.3 GRAVITY FLOW BLENDING SILOS WITH INTERNAL BLEND HOPPERS ............................... 669 8.2.3 A GRAVITY FLOW BLENDING SILOS WITH BLENDING PIPES ... 671 B.2.3.5 MULTI-CHAMBER BLENDING SILOS .................................... 674 8.2.4 SELECTION CRITERIA ......................................................................... 675 8.2.5 SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 677 8.3 FEEDING TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................... 678 BERNHARD HIIPPMEIER 8.3.1 BASICS OF FEEDING TECHNOLOGY ...................................................... 679 8.3.2 DIFFERENT FEEDING TECHNOLOGIES FOR SOLIDS .................................. 681 8.3.3 LOSS-IN-WEIGHT LIQUID FEEDERS .................................................... 686 8.3.4 LOSS-IN-WEIGHT FEEDER ................................................................. 687 8.3.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE WEIGH-FEEDERS .......................................... 688 8.3.6 PLANT IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................... 689 8.3.7 REFILL ............................................................................................... 691 8.3.8 VENTING ........................................................................................... 693 8.3.9 ATEX ............................................................................................. 694 8.3.10 ACCURACY & CONSISTENCY (NAMUR) ................................................ 695 8.3.11 CLEANING AND PRODUCT CHANGE .................................................... 696 8.3.12 CONTROL AND INTERFACES ................................................................. 696 8.3.13 FUTURE OUTLOOK ............................................................................. 696 8.3.14 SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 697 8.4 HIGH-INTENSIVE MIXING ............................................................................... 697 HARALD WILMS, HENNING KREIS 8.4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 697 8.4.2 INTRODUCTION TO MIXING OF SOLIDS .................................................. 698 8.4.2.1 MIXING TASK ................................................................... 698 8.4.2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MIXERS ................................................ 699 8.4.2.3 SEGREGATION ................................................................... 699 8.4.2.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE STATE OF MIXING BY STATISTICAL MEANS ......................................................... 700 8.4.3 APPLICATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED MIXERS ............................................ 702 8.4.3.1 PVC PROCESSING ........................................................... 703 8.4.3.2 PRODUCTION OF WOOD-PLASTIC COMPOUNDS (WPC) ........ 704 8.4.3.3 PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS FOR POWDER INJECTION MOLDING (PIM) ............................................................. 704 8.4.3.4 PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS FOR BONDING APPLICATIONS 704 8.4.4 MIXERS OPERATING IN BATCH MODE .................................................. 705 8.4.4.1 FLUID MIXERS ................................................................. 705 8.4.4.2 HIGH-SPEED MIXERS ....................................................... 706 8.4.4.3 HEATING-COOLING MIXER COMBINATION ........................ 708 8.4.4.4 CONTAINER MIXER ......................................................... 709 8.4.5 MIXERS FOR CONTINUOUS OPERATION ............................................... 710 8.4.6 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK ................................................................. 712 8.5 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING IN THE POLYMER INDUSTRY ..................................... 714 HARALD WILMS, GUIDO WINKHARDT 8.5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 714 8.5.2 CONVEYING MODES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTIC ................................ 715 8.5.3 DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS .................................... 717 8.5.4 DESIGN AND OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS .......... 720 8.5.4.1 CONCEPT AND OPERATION OF A DILUTE-PHASE CONVEYING SYSTEM ....................................................... 721 5.5.4.2 CONCEPT AND OPERATION OF DENSE-PHASE CONVEYING SYSTEMS ..................................................... 721 8.5.5 FEEDING OF SOLIDS INTO THE CONVEYING LINE .................................. 726 8.5.6 SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 727 9 GEAR PUMPS FOR COMPOUNDING ................................................... 731 SVEN WIECZOREK 9.1 INTRODUCTION - GEAR PUMPS ....................................................................... 731 9.2 MODE OF OPERATION OF THE GEAR PUMP ....................................................... 732 9.3 GEAR PUMP FOR COMPOUNDING IN THE MAIN FLOW ...................................... 733 9.3.1 DESIGN OF THE PUMP ..................................................................... 734 9.3.1.1 HOUSING AND COVERS ..................................................... 735 9.3.1.2 GEARWHEELS ................................................................. 736 9.3.1.3 FRICTION BEARING ........................................................... 738 9.3.1.4 AXIAL SHAFT SEAL ........................................................... 740 9.3.1.5 HEATING ......................................................................... 741 9.3.2 INFLUENCE OF THE PUMPED MEDIUM ............................................... 741 9.3.2.1 VISCOSITY ....................................................................... 741 9.3.2.2 SOLIDS ............................................................................. 743 9.3.3 CONTROL SYSTEM .......................................................... 743 9.4 GEAR PUMP FOR ADDITIVES ........................................................................... 743 9.4.1 DESIGN OF THE PUMP ..................................................................... 743 9.4.1.1 HOUSING AND COVERS ..................................................... 744 9.4.1.2 GEARWHEELS ................................................................. 744 9.4.1.3 FRICTION BEARING ........................................................... 745 9.4.1.4 AXIAL SHAFT SEAL ........................................................... 745 9.4.1.5 HEATING ......................................................................... 745 9.4.2 INFLUENCE OF THE PUMPED MEDIUM ............................................... 745 9.4.2.1 VISCOSITY ....................................................................... 745 10 FILTERS FOR (HIGHLY) VISCOUS POLYMER MELTS ................................. 747 THOMAS GRIMM-BOSBACH 10.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF POLYMER FILTRATION ...................................................... 747 10.1.1 POSSIBLE CONTAMINATION OF POLYMER MELTS .................................. 748 10.1.2 USABLE FILTER MEDIA ...................................................................... 749 10.1.3 DEFINITION OF POLYMER MELT FILTRATION .......................................... 753 10.2 FILTRATION SYSTEMS ...................................................................................... 754 10.2.1 LARGE-AREA FILTERS .......................................................................... 754 10.2.1.1 FILTER CANDLES ................................................................ 755 10.2.1.2 FILTER DISCS .................................................................... 756 10.2.2 SCREEN CHANGERS ............................................................................ 760 10.2.2.1 PISTON SCREEN CHANGERS ................................................ 760 10.2.2.2 ROTARY SCREEN CHANGERS .............................................. 763 10.2.3 MODERN FILTRATION SYSTEMS - ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS ............ 765 10.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR MELT FILTERS .............................................................. 767 10.4 THE RIGHT FILTRATION .................................................................................. 777 11 PELLETIZING AND DRYING ................................................................... 781 HARALD ZANG, HORST MULLER 11.1 OVERVIEW OF PELLETIZING PROCESSES ............................................................ 781 11.2 PROCESS ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF PELLETIZING .............................................. 783 11.3 PROCESS ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DRYING .................................................... 786 11.4 PELLETIZING AND DRYING IN THE POLYMER PRODUCTION .................................. 787 11.4.1 TYPICAL APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS .............................................. 787 11.4.2 UNDERWATER PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGY FOR POLYOLEFINS .................... 788 11.4.3 AIR-COOLED PELLETIZING FOR PVC ...................................................... 792 11.4.4 UNDERWATER STRAND PELLETIZING .................................................... 793 11.4.5 PELLET DRYING AND PROCESS WATER TREATMENT IN THE POLYMER PRODUCTION ...................................................................... 794 11.5 PELLETIZING AND DRYING IN COMPOUNDING PROCESSES (FILLING, REINFORCING, ADDITIVATION, BLENDING) ........................................................ 796 11.5.1 TYPICAL APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS .............................................. 797 11.5.2 UNDERWATER PELLETIZING AND DRYING ............................................ 798 11.5.3 STRAND DRY CUT (CONVENTIONAL STRAND PELLETIZING) ...................... 800 11.5.4 AUTOMATIC STRAND DRY CUT ............................................................ 802 11.5.5 SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS ................................ 803 11.6 OTHER PELLETIZING AND DRYING PROCESSES .................................................... 804 11.6.1 DICERS ............................................................................................. 804 11.6.2 WATER RING PELLETIZERS .................................................................. 805 11.6.3 ALTERNATIVE PELLETIZING PROCESSES ................................................ 806 12 MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY ........................................................... 809 CHRISTOPH KUGLER, JOHANNES RUDLOFF, CHRISTINA HOFFMANN, THOMAS HOCHREIN 12.1 METROLOGICAL BASICS ................................................................................... 809 12.2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY ............................ 810 12.2.1 TEMPERATURE ................................................................................. 811 12.2.2 PRESSURE ......................................................................................... 813 12.3 RHEOLOGICAL METROLOGY ............................................................................... 815 12.3.1 LABORATORY RHEOMETERS ............................................................... 815 12.3.2 PROCESS RHEOMETERS ..................................................................... 817 12.4 OPTICAL AND SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS ........................................................ 818 12.4.1 COLOR MEASUREMENT ..................................................................... 818 12.4.2 INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY ................................................................. 819 12.4.3 MICROSCOPY AND IMAGE ANALYSIS ................................................. 820 12.4.4 OPTICAL SORTING SYSTEM ................................................................. 820 12.5 APPLICATION-RELATED TESTS ......................................................................... 823 12.6 FILTER PRESSURE TEST ................................................................................... 824 12.7 SPECIAL SYSTEMS ......................................................................................... 827 12.7.1 ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY .......................................... 828 12.7.2 MODEL-PREDICTIVE CONTROL ............................................................. 828 INDEX ........................................................................................................ 831
adam_txt CONTENTS THE AUTHORS . V IN MEMORIAM . IX PREFACE . XI PART A INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCESSING OF POLYMERS . 1 1 INTRODUCTION . 3 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER, MICHAEL BIERDEL 1.1 PLASTICS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE . 3 1.2 PROCESSING AND COMPOUNDING . 4 1.3 RECYCLING OF PLASTICS . 5 1.4 GUIDE TO THE INDIVIDUAL CHAPTERS OF THIS BOOK . 7 2 POLYMER PROCESSING - PROCESS TECHNOLOGY OF POLYMER PRODUCTION . 9 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 2.1 INTRODUCTION . 9 2.2 POLYMER PROCESSING DURING THE POLYMER SYNTHESIS IN THE PRIMARY PRODUCTION . 14 2.3 POLYMER PROCESSING AFTER THE POLYMER PRODUCTION - COMPOUNDING . 17 2.3.1 MAIN TEMPERATURE WINDOW WHEN COMPOUNDING FOR FINISH MIXTURE . 18 2.3.2 MIXING IN THE EXTRUDER . 19 2.3.3 TEMPERATURE AND TIME LIMITS FOR COMPOUNDING . 22 2.3.4 CHALLENGES WHEN COMPOUNDING . 25 2.3.5 ENERGY REQUIREMENT WHEN COMPOUNDING . 28 2.3.6 RANGE OF PERFORMANCE OF EXTRUDER . 32 2.3.7 THROUGHPUT AND PERFORMANCE DENSITY . 35 2.3.8 PERFORMANCE DENSITY IN THE MELT AREA . 39 2.3.9 ENERGY BALANCE AND PRODUCT DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE . 40 2.3.10 STATIC MIXERS . 46 2.3.11 MIXING PERFORMANCE, MIXING QUALITY, CROSS MIXING, LONGITUDINAL MIXING . 49 2.3.11.1 MIXING PERFORMANCE . 49 2.3.11.2 MIXING PERFORMANCE AND MIXING QUALITY . 51 2.3.11.3 CROSS AND LONGITUDINAL MIXING . 53 2.3.11.4 RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION . 54 2.3.11.5 MEAN RESIDENCE TIME . 58 PART B PROCESSING IN POLYMER PRODUCTION . 61 3 DEVOLATILIZING DEVICES . 63 3.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF DEVOLATILIZATION . 63 HEINO THIELE 3.1.1 PHASE EQUILIBRIUM . 65 3.1.2 MACROSCOPIC MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE . 68 3.1.3 QUANTITIES INFLUENCING THE CHANGE IN CONCENTRATION . 69 3.1.4 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS . 79 3.2 POLYMER PRODUCTION AND DEGASSING TASKS . 81 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 3.2.1 GENERAL CHALLENGES AT THE DEGASSING OF VOLATILES FROM POLYMERS . 82 3.2.2 SPECIAL FEATURES AT THE DEGASSING OF POLYMERS WITH HIGH CONTENT OF VOLATILES AND LIMITATION OF FINISH DEGASSING . 83 3.3 OVERVIEW OF DEVICES AND MACHINES FOR COMPOUNDING WITH POLYMER DEGASSING . 84 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 3.3.1 INTRODUCTION . 84 3.3.2 DEVICES WITH ROTATING COMPONENTS AND MACHINES . 86 3.4 APPARATUS-BASED POLYMER EVAPORATION . 90 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 3.4.1 TUBE EVAPORATOR . 91 3.4.2 PROCESS AND DEVICES FOR FINISH DEGASSING FOR VERY LOW RESIDUAL CONTENTS IN THE POLYMER . 98 3.4.3 GENERAL SCHEME OF AN APPARATUS-BASED EVAPORATION STAGE . 103 3.4.4 PRODUCT QUALITY . 104 3.5 DEGASSING OF POLYMERS IN PURGE BINS . 108 HARALD WILMS, HANS SCHNEIDER 3.5.1 INTRODUCTION . 108 3.5.2 PROCESS REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGASSING OF SOLIDS . 109 3.5.3 BASICS OF PARTICLE DEGASSSING . 110 3.5.4 DETERMINATION OF DEGASSING PROCESS PARAMETERS . 112 3.5.4.1 OVEN TESTS . 114 3.5.4.2 BATCH TRIALS . 114 3.5.4.3 PILOT PLANT TESTS . 114 3.5.4.4 CRITERIA FOR THE GAS FLOW RATE FOR DEGASSING . 116 3.5.5 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGASSING SILO . 116 3.5.6 HEATING OF BULK SOLIDS . 119 3.5.7 ENERGY-EFFICIENT PLANT CONCEPTS . 120 3.5.8 COMPARABLE APPLICATIONS . 121 3.5.9 SUMMARY . 121 PART C PROCESSING AFTER POLYMER PRODUCTION - COMPOUNDING . 123 4 REQUIREMENTS, PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT, ADDITIVES, SOURCES OF FAULTS . 125 4.1 COMPOUNDING REQUIREMENTS FROM THE COMPOUNDER ' S PERSPECTIVE . 125 THOMAS SCHULDT 4.1.1 INTRODUCTION . 125 4.1.2 ECONOMICS . 125 4.1.3 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS ALONG THE PROCESS CHAIN . 127 4.1.3.1 MATERIAL HANDLING . 127 4.1.3.2 RAW MATERIAL PRE-TREATMENT . 129 4.1.3.3 PREMIXING . 129 4.1.3.4 EXTRUDER AND WEAR . 131 4.1.3.5 COOLING AND PELLETIZING . 135 4.1.3.6 PACKAGING . 136 4.1.4 QUALITY CONTROL . 137 4.1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS . 139 4.1.6 CONCLUSIONS . 139 4.2 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT . 140 THOMAS SCHULDT 4.2.1 INTRODUCTION . 140 4.2.2 TYPES OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT . 140 4.2.3 BUILDING BLOCKS OF PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT . 142 4.2.3.1 EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY . 143 4.2.3.2 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY . 143 4.2.3.3 FORMULATION . 143 4.2.4 INGREDIENTS . 144 4.2.4.1 ADDITIVES . 144 4.2.4.2 FILLERS . 145 4.2.4.3 PIGMENTS . 146 4.2.5 INNOVATION . 148 4.2.6 QUALITY CONTROL . 149 4.2.7 SCALE-UP . 150 4.3 ADDITIVES FOR POLYMERS - FROM POLYMER TO PLASTIC . 152 HERMANN DIEM 4.3.1 BLENDS . 152 4.3.1.1 DEFINITION OF BLENDS . 152 4.3.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MULTI-PHASE SYSTEMS . 153 4.3.1.2.1 POLYMER BLENDS . 153 4.3.1.2.2 DRY BLENDS . 155 4.3.2 ADDITIVES . 155 4.3.2.1 DEFINITION OF ADDITIVES . 155 4.3.2.2 EFFECTS AND MODE OF OPERATION OF THE ADDITIVES . 156 4.3.2.2.1 PLASTICIZERS . 156 4.3.2.2.2 STABILIZERS . 156 4.3.2.3 INCORPORATION OF ADDITIVES INTO POLYMERS . 158 4.3.3 FILLERS . 159 4.3.3.1 DEFINITION OF FILLERS . 159 4.3.3.2 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF FILLERS . 159 4.3.3.3 ASPECT RATIO . 160 4.4 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES REGARDING SOURCES OF FAULL/AVOIDANCE OF FAULTS DURING COMPOUNDING . 161 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 4.4.1 BLACK SPECKS . 163 4.4.2 SOURCES AT DOSING AND MIXING . 167 4.4.2.1 DEMIXING . 167 4.4.2.2 DOSING SYSTEM . 168 4.4.2.3 MIXING OF POLYMER WITH ADDITIVES . 169 4.4.3 DRIVE-MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE . 170 4.4.4 FAULTS IN TESTS WITH SMALL EXTRUDERS FOR SCALE-UP PURPOSES . 172 5 COMPOUNDING WITH CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 177 5.1 INTRODUCTION . 177 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 5.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF THE CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER . 178 5.1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF THE CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER . 180 5.1.3 RANGE OF SERVICES AND POWER DENSITY OF CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 181 5.1.4 PARAMETERS IN DEPENDENCE ON THE DIAMETER RATIO . 183 5.1.4.1 STRENGTH AND THROUGHPUT AS A FUNCTION OF DA/D T . 183 5.1.4.2 PRESSURE AND POWER CHARACTERISTIC AS A FUNCTION OFDJDT . 186 5.1.4.3 MAXIMUM PRODUCT VOLUME . 188 5.1.4.4 INNER SURFACE OF THE HOUSING TO MAXIMUM PRODUCT SPACE . 189 5.1.4.5 OUTLOOK . 192 5.1.5 SPECIAL TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE CO-ROTATING EXTRUDER . 192 5.2 TASKS AND DESIGN OF THE PROCESSING ZONES OF A COMPOUNDING EXTRUDER 194 REINER RUDOLF, MICHAEL BIERDEL 5.2.1 MELT CONVEYING ZONE . 195 5.2.2 SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE . 201 5.2.3 PLASTIFICATION ZONE . 204 5.2.4 DISTRIBUTIVE AND DISPERSIVE MIXING ZONE . 209 5.2.5 DEVOLATILIZATION ZONE . 214 5.2.6 PRESSURE BUILD-UP ZONE . 216 5.2.7 COMPLETE SCREW CONFIGURATION . 219 5.2.8 SPECIFIC ENERGY INPUT . 222 5.2.9 RESIDENCE TIME CHARACTERISTICS . 225 5.3 PROCESS AND SCREW CONCEPTS FOR MACHINES WITH HIGH THROUGHPUTS . 229 FRANK LECHNER 5.3.1 DEVELOPMENT TO HIGH TORQUES, VOLUMES, AND ROTATIONS . 229 5.3.2 PARAMETERS AND PROCESS LIMITS OF CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW KNEADERS . 230 5.3.3 PROCESS LENGTH AND SCREW DEVELOPMENT . 233 5.3.4 MAXIMUM POSSIBLE SCREW SPEED . 234 5.3.5 TORQUE-LIMITED PROCESSES . 235 5.3.6 VOLUME-LIMITED PROCESSES . 237 5.3.7 QUALITY-LIMITED PROCESSES . 241 5.3.8 PROCESS CONCEPT FOR ECONOMICAL COMPOUNDING . 244 5.3.9 OUTLOOK . 247 5.4 SCREW DESIGNS FOR HIGHLY FILLED POLYMERS (AND DOSING STRATEGIES) . 247 SEBASTIAN FRAAS 5.4.1 WHY FILLER COMPOUNDS? . 247 5.4.2 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS . 248 5.4.3 MATERIAL-SPECIFIC INFLUENCING FACTORS . 248 5.4.3.1 INFLUENCE OF FILLER . 248 5.4.3.1.1 ORIGIN/MINING . 250 5.4.3.1.2 PARTICLE SIZE AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION . 250 5.4.3.1.3 COATING . 250 5.4.3.1.4 MOISTURE CONTENT . 251 5.4.3.2 POLYMER AND ADDITIVES . 252 5.4.4 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY . 252 5.4.4.1 CONVEYING TECHNOLOGY . 254 5.4.4.2 DOSING EQUIPMENT . 255 5.4.4.3 DOWNSTREAM EQUIPMENT . 256 5.4.4.4 BARREL SETUP OF AN EXTRUDER FOR HIGHLY FILLED COMPOUNDS . 256 5.4.4.5 SCREW DESIGN . 260 5.4.4.5.1 MELTING ZONE . 260 5.4.4.5.2 FILLER ADDITION AND WETTING . 261 5.4.4.5.3 DISPERSION ZONE . 261 5.4.4.5.4 VACUUM AND DISCHARGE ZONE . 262 5.4.4.6 ENTIRE SYSTEM . 262 5.5 COMPOUNDING OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS . 263 DIJAN ILIEW, STEPHEN KROLL, ANDREA SIEBERT-RATHS 5.5.1 PRE-KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PROCESSING OF NATURAL FIBERS . 265 5.5.2 DESIGN AND PARAMETERIZATION OF THE PROCESS UNIT OF A CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER . 271 5.6 FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMOPLASTIC FOAM EXTRUSION BY MEANS OF PARALLEL TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 279 LUKAS VOGEL 5.6.1 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF FOAMS . 281 5.6.2 PROCESS STEPS FOR FOAM EXTRUSION . 283 5.6.2.1 PROVISION OF THERMOPLASTIC MELTS . 284 5.6.2.2 ADDITION AND ADMIXING OF THE PROPELLANT (BLOWING AGENT) . 284 5.6.2.3 INJECTING THE BLOWING AGENT AND CONDITIONING OF THE MELT . 285 5.6.2 A DISCHARGE OF THE MELT THROUGH THE DIE . 287 5.6.2.5 GROWTH OF CELLS AND STABILIZATION OF THE FOAM STRUCTURE . 289 5.6.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS FOR FOAM EXTRUSION . 293 5.7 SCREW CONFIGURATIONS . 298 MICHAEL BIERDEL 5.8 MATERIALS, COATINGS, WEAR TECHNOLOGY . 313 OLIVER KAYSER 5.8.1 REQUIREMENTS TO THE COMPONENTS FOR COMPOUNDING . 313 5.8.2 MATERIALS AND HEAT TREATMENT . 314 5.8.2.1 TEMPERING STEELS AND NITRIDING STEELS . 315 5.8.2.2 HOT-WORK STEELS . 315 5.8.2.3 ALLOYED COLD-WORK STEELS . 316 5.8.2.4 HIGH-SPEED STEELS . 317 5.8.3 EXECUTION OF COMPONENTS OF TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 317 5.8.4 PROCESS OF SURFACE LAYER HARDENING . 319 5.8.4.1 WEAR PROTECTION BY NITRIDING . 320 5.8.4.2 AVOIDANCE OF ADHESIVE WEAR DUE TO NITRIDING . 323 5.8.4.3 AVOIDANCE OF PITTING CORROSION BY NITRIDING . 324 5.8.4.4 SPECIAL PROCESS FOR MAINTAINING CORROSION PROTECTION . 324 5.8.5 WEAR PROTECTION BY COATINGS . 326 5.8.5.1 HARD CHROMIUM . 326 5.8.5.2 CHEMICAL NICKEL . 328 5.8.5.3 THIN LAYERS OF HARD MATERIAL . 329 5.8.5.3.1 PHYSICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION . 329 5.8.5.3.2 CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION . 333 5.8.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR APPLICATION . 336 5.8.7 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK . 337 6 COMPOUNDING AND POLYMER PROCESSING WITH DIFFERENT EXTRUDER TYPES . 341 6.1 EXTRUDER TYPES - INTRODUCTION . 341 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 6.1.1 COMPOUNDING AND PROCESSING WITH DIFFERENT EXTRUDER TYPES 341 6.1.2 SINGLE-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 344 6.1.3 GEAR PUMPS . 345 6.1.4 CO-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 346 6.1.5 COUNTER-ROTATING TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 347 6.1.6 MULTI-SCREW EXTRUDERS: RINGEXTRUDERS AND PLANETARY ROLLER EXTRUDERS . 348 6.1.7 NON-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 349 6.1.8 HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS . 350 6.2 SINGLE-SCREW EXTRUDER . 351 GREGOR KARRENBERG 6.2.1 APPLICATIONS IN COMPOUNDING . 351 6.2.2 DESIGN AND FUNCTION . 353 6.2.3 PLASTICIZING EXTRUDER . 356 6.2.4 MELT EXTRUDER . 361 6.2.5 DEGASSING EXTRUDER . 362 6.2.6 MIXING ELEMENTS FOR SINGLE-SCREW EXTRUDERS . 364 6.2.7 SCALE-UP METHODS . 367 6.3 THE RINGEXTRUDER . 369 MICHAEL ERDMANN 6.3.1 MECHANICAL SETUP . 370 6.3.2 PRINCIPLE OF MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTIVE MIXING . 373 6.3.3 DISPERSIVE MIXING . 374 6.3.4 DEGASSING EFFICIENCY . 375 6.3.5 HEAT TRANSFER - SURFACE/VOLUME RATIO . 376 6.3.6 WEAR PROTECTION . 377 6.3.7 EXTRUDER SERIES AND SCALE-UP . 378 6.3.8 FIELDS OF APPLICATION . 379 6.3.8.1 PET RECYCLING . 380 6.3.8.2 CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION OF RUBBER COMPOUNDS . 381 6.4 COUNTER-ROTATING INTERMESHING TWIN SCREWS . 387 ERNST KRUGER 6.4.1 UNDERSTANDING OF GELATION OF PVC AS A REQUIREMENT FOR UNDERSTANDING OF TWIN SCREWS . 388 6.4.2 STRUCTURE OF A PVC GRAIN . 389 6.4.3 SCHEME OF PVC PROCESSING . 390 6.4.4 MODEL OF PVC COMPOUNDING AND PROCESSING . 390 6.4.5 LEVEL OF GELATION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES . 391 6.4.6 FORMULATION COMPONENTS . 392 6.4.7 HOMOGENEITY OF THE GELATION LEVEL . 392 6.4.8 HOMOGENEITY IN PVC PROCESSING . 393 6.4.9 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON GELATION HOMOGENEITY . 394 6.4.10 TEMPERATURE INSIDE THE 8TO0 ADAPTER . 394 6.4.11 BASICS OF SCREW DESIGN . 395 6.4.11.1 ZONES OF A COUNTER-ROTATING TWIN SCREW . 396 6.4.11.2 SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE SCREW DESIGN OF COUNTER-ROTATING TWIN SCREWS . 398 6.4.12 DESIGN AND WEAR . 399 6.5 PLANETARY ROLLER EXTRUDER . 404 ELARALD RUST, THOMAS BIRR, HOLGER LANGE 6.5.1 INTRODUCTION . 404 6.5.2 MECHANICAL PRINCIPLE . 405 6.5.3 CONSTRUCTION . 406 6.5.4 CHARACTERISTICS . 407 6.5.5 CONSTRUCTION SIZES AND DESIGNATIONS . 408 6.5.6 CONVEYING AND WORKING PRINCIPLE . 410 6.5.6.1 PARTIALLY AND FULLY FILLED AREAS . 411 6.5.7 PLANETARY SPINDLE CONFIGURATION . 412 6.5.7.1 TYPES OF PLANETARY SPINDLES . 413 6.5.7.2 PLANETARY SPINDLE LENGTHS . 416 6.5.7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF PLANETARY SPINDLES . 418 6.5.8 INTERMEDIATE RINGS . 419 6.5.9 THE MODULAR SYSTEM . 422 6.5.10 FEEDING OF SOLIDS . 423 6.5.11 FEEDING OF LIQUIDS . 427 6.5.12 DEGASSING . 429 6.5.13 SENSOR SYSTEM . 438 6.5.14 PERIPHERAL DEVICES . 440 6.6 OSCILLATING SCREW KNEADER OR CONTINUOUS KNEADER . 442 HANS-ULRICH SIEGENTHALER 6.6.1 INTRODUCTION . 442 6.6.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND . 443 6.6.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE . 444 6.6.4 SHEAR RATE . 446 6.6.5 RESIDENCE TIME AND RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION . 448 6.6.6 TECHNICAL DESIGN . 450 6.6.6.1 MODULARITY . 450 6.6.6.2 LINERS . 452 6.6.6.3 SCREW ELEMENTS . 454 6.6.6A KNEADING BOLTS AND TEETH . 456 6.6.6.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL . 458 6.6.6.6 PRESSURE BUILD-UP SYSTEMS . 461 6.6.7 APPLICATION FIELDS . 462 6.6.7.1 CABLE COMPOUNDS . 463 6.6.7.2 ENGINEERING AND HIGH-PERFORMANCE PLASTICS . 464 6.6.7.3 PVC APPLICATIONS (GRANULATING AND CALENDERING) . 465 6.6.7.4 THERMOSET APPLICATIONS . 466 6.6.7.5 POWDER COATINGS AND TONERS . 466 6.6.7.6 ANODE MASSES FOR ALUMINUM PRODUCTION . 467 6.6.7.7 SPECIALTIES . 467 6.6.7.3 FOOD APPLICATIONS . 468 6.7 FARREL POMINI CONTINUOUS MIXERS . 470 PETER GOHL, ROMAN KEBALO, JOE PEREIRA, STUART SARDINSKAS 6.7.1 INTRODUCTION . 470 6.7.2 GENERAL MECHANICAL FEATURES . 472 6.7.2.1 MECHANICAL FEATURES: MIXER . 472 6.7.2.2 MECHANICAL FEATURES: EXTRUDER . 473 6.7.3 FCM CONFIGURATION . 473 6.7.3.1 FEED SECTION . 473 6.7.3.2 MIXING SECTION . 473 6.7. 3.3 APEX ZONE . 474 6.7.3.4 ROTOR ORIENTATION . 475 6.7.4 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION . 478 6.7.4.1 HEATING AND COOLING . 480 6.7.4.2 MIXER BODY SEGMENTS AND MIXING DAMS . 481 6.7.5 PROCESS FLEXIBILITY . 482 6.7.6 APPLICATIONS . 484 6.7.7 ENERGY SAVING . 485 6.7.8 CONCLUSION . 487 6.8 EXTRUDER TYPES - COMPARISON . 488 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER, MICHAEL BIERDEL 6.8.1 QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED PRIOR TO A COMPARISON . 488 6.8.2 COSTS, OPERATING FIGURES, SPECIFIC ENERGY . 490 6.8.3 CHARACTERISTIC PROCESS PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT EXTRUDER TYPES 496 6.8.4 DESCRIPTIVE EVALUATION OF EXTRUDERS WITH CURRENT THROUGHPUTS AND SIZES . 500 6.9 MRS (MULTI-ROTATIONS SYSTEM) . 510 AXEL HANNEMANN 6.9.1 MODE OF OPERATION . 510 6.9.1.1 FEEDING AND PLASTIFICATION IN THE MRS . 510 6.9.1.2 THE DEGASSING DRUM - THE HEART OF THE MRS TECHNOLOGY . 511 6.9.1.3 CONVEYING AND PUMPING . 514 6.9.2 CONTINUOUS MEASURE AND CONTROL OF PROCESS PARAMETERS . 514 6.9.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF ACQUISITION AND CONTROL OF THE PROCESS PARAMETERS MELT PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND VISCOSITY . 514 6.9.2.2 CONTROL BY MEANS OF ONLINE VISCOMETER VIS . 514 6.9.3 ESSENTIAL PROCESS-RELATED INFLUENCING FACTORS DURING PET PROCESSING . 515 6.9.3.1 DRYING AND EXTRUSION . 515 6.9.4 PROCESSING OF OTHER POLYMERS . 519 6.9.4.1 RECYCLING OF POLYOLEFINS . 519 6.9.4.2 MONOMER REMOVAL . 521 6.9.4.3 DECONTAMINATION . 524 6.9.5 ENERGY SAVINGS WITH THE MRS SYSTEM . 525 6.9.6 RESULTS . 526 7 PROCESSING OF POLYMER MELTS WITH OTHER DEVICES AND MACHINES . 529 7.1 HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS . 529 OLIVER SEEK 7.1.1 INTRODUCTION . 529 7.1.2 SINGLE-SHAFT HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS . 532 7.1.3 TWIN-SHAFT HIGH-VISCOSITY REACTORS . 534 7.1.3.1 REACOM . 534 7.1.3.2 REASIL . 535 7.1.4 PRODUCT TRANSPORT . 536 7.1.5 ENERGY INPUT . 537 7.1.6 AXIAL AND RADIAL MIXING BEHAVIOR . 538 7.1.7 DEVOLATILIZATION . 541 7.1.8 APPARATUS DESIGN AND SCALE-UP . 544 7.1.9 SUMMARY . 546 7.2 COMPOUNDING OF POLYMERS BY MEANS OF CALENDER AND FLAT FILM LINES 548 HARALD RUST, STEFAN SEIBEL 7.2.1 HISTORY . 548 7.2.2 CONTINUOUS FEEDING . 550 7.2.3 THE PLANETARY ROLLER EXTRUDER FOR CALENDER FEEDING . 550 7.2.4 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COMPOUNDING SYSTEMS . 551 7.2.5 MODERN CALENDER LINES . 552 7.2.6 TYPES OF PELLETIZING . 554 7.2.7 ROLL MILL AND STRAINER . 556 7.2.8 ROLL MILL . 556 7.2.9 STRAINER . 556 7.2.10 EDGE TRIMS . 558 7.2.11 DIFFERENT CALENDER TYPES . 559 7.2.12 SPECIAL DESIGNS . 561 7.2.13 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CALENDERS AND CALANDRETTES . 561 7.2.14 THE TASK OF THE CALENDER AND DIFFERENT CALENDER ROLLS . 562 7.2.15 THE SETUP AND MODE OF OPERATION OF A CALENDER . 564 7.2.16 POSSIBILITIES OF CORRECTION . 565 7.2.17 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS . 566 7.2.18 COMPARISON OF THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE EDGE AREAS BETWEEN A CONVENTIONAL, PERIPHERALLY BORED ROLL AND A COILED ROLL . 566 7.2.19 STATIC AND THERMAL COMPARISON OF CALENDER ROLLS IN USE TODAY 567 7.2.20 SPEEDS AND SIZES . 567 7.2.21 THE MINI IMPRESSION ROLLER . 569 7.2.22 THICKNESS MEASURING AND INSPECTION UNIT FOR CONTAMINATION . 570 7.2.23 WINDER . 571 7.2.24 SHEET AND FILM PRODUCTION . 572 7.2.24.1 GEAR PUMPS . 572 7.2.24.2 FLAT FILM DIES . 573 7.2.24.2.1 DIE CONSTRUCTION ALWAYS IS A COMPROMISE . 573 7.2.24.2.2 APPLICATION-SPECIFIC DIE EQUIPMENT . 574 7.2.24.2.3 MULTI-LAYER EXTRUSION . 574 7.2.25 CHILL ROLL LINE . 576 7.2.26 FLAT FILM LINE . 577 7.2.27 POLISHING ROLLS . 577 7.2.28 FOAM SHEETS OF 20 MM-200 MM . 579 7.2.29 VACUUM NAP FILM LINE ACCORDING TO THE FILM CASTING PRINCIPLE FOR CONSTRUCTION NAP FILM . 580 7.2.30 TPU FILM LINE FOR DIRECT EMBOSSING BETWEEN SILICONIZED FABRIC 581 7.2.31 FILM STRETCHING LINES . 581 7.2.32 INTRODUCTION TO THE BIAX PROCESS USING THE EXAMPLE OF BOPP . 582 7.2.32.1 RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY AND EXTRUSION . 582 7.2.32.2 TDO (TRANSVERSAL DIRECTION ORIENTER) . 583 7.3 MIXING AND DISPERSION . 585 7.3.1 FUNDAMENTALS: HOMOGENEOUS AND DISPERSIVE MIXING . 585 JORG KIRCHHOFF, MICHAEL BIERDEL 7.3.1.1 OVERVIEW, PRINCIPLES, AND EXPERIMENTS . 585 7.3.1.1.1 HOMOGENEOUS MIXING - MIXING IN LAMINAR FLOW . 585 7.3.1.1.2 DISPERSIVE MIXING . 591 7.3.1.1.3 DETERMINING THE MIXING QUALITY . 598 7.3.1.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL CALCULATIONS OF MIXING AND RESIDENCE TIME BEHAVIOR . 602 7.3.1.3 SUMMARY . 608 7.3.2 STATIC MIXERS . 609 KLEMENS KOHLGRIIBER 7.3.2.1 INTRODUCTION, ADVANTAGES, AND DISADVANTAGES . 609 7.3.2.2 CONSTRUCTION TYPES . 611 7.3.2.3 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY . 616 7.3.2.3.1 PRESSURE LOSS AND MIXER EVALUATION . 616 7.3.2.3.2 REDUCTION IN LAYER THICKNESS DEPENDING ON THE MIXING LENGTH - DISTRIBUTIVE MIXING . 617 7.3.2.3.3 RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION . 618 7.3.2.3.4 POWER INPUT AND TEMPERATURE . 618 7.3.2.3.5 GAS DISPERSION . 620 7.3.2.3.6 MIXING-IN OF ADDITIVES . 621 7.3.2.3.7 HEAT TRANSFER . 621 7.3.2.3.8 SCALE-UP OF THE MIXING FUNCTION . 622 7.3.2.4 STATIC MIXERS WITH INTERNAL TEMPERATURE CONTROL . 624 7.3.2.4.1 SMR HEAT EXCHANGER . 625 7.3.2.4.2 COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGER WITH TEMPERATURE-CONTROLLED X INSTALLATIONS 625 PART D FURTHER IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF A PROCESSING FACILITY 627 8 BULK MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY IN POLYMER PROCESSING . 629 8.1 SILO DESIGN FOR FLOW AND STABILITY . 629 HARALD WILMS 8.1.1 SILOS DISCHARGE PROBLEMS . 629 8.1.1.1 ARCHING . 629 8.1.1.2 RATHOLING . 630 8.1.1.3 ERRATIC FLOW . 631 8.1.1.4 FLUSHING . 631 8.1.1.5 SEGREGATION . 631 8.1.1.6 LEVEL CONTROL . 633 8.1.1.7 RESIDENCE DISTRIBUTION . 634 8.1.2 FLOW PROFILES IN SILOS . 635 8.1.3 SHEAR TESTS TO DETERMINE THE FLOW PROPERTIES . 637 8.1.4 SILO DESIGN FOR FLOW . 641 8.1.4.1 HOPPER WALL INCLINATION FOR MASS FLOW . 642 8.1.4.2 OUTLET DIAMETER TO AVOID ARCHING IN MASS FLOW . 645 8.1.4.3 OUTLET DIAMETER TO AVOID RATHOLING IN FUNNEL FLOW . 649 8.1.4.4 INFLUENCE OF TIME CONSOLIDATION . 653 8.1.4.5 APPLICATION OF DISCHARGE DEVICES AND DISCHARGE AIDS . 654 8.1.5 STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF SILO DESIGN . 656 8.1.5.1 PRESSURES IN SILOS . 656 8.1.5.2 PRESSURE PEAKS IN SILOS . 657 8.1.5.3 ASYMMETRIC FLOW CHANNELS . 658 8.2 BLENDING SILOS FOR PLASTIC COMPOUNDING AND PROCESSING . 662 HARALD WILMS 8.2.1 INTRODUCTION . 662 8.2.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR BLENDING SILOS . 664 8.2.3 SURVEY ON BLENDING SILO DESIGNS . 666 8.2.3.1 BLENDING SILOS WITH MECHANICAL ENERGY INPUT . 666 8.2.3.2 BLENDING SILOS WITH PNEUMATIC ENERGY INPUT . 667 8.2.3.3 GRAVITY FLOW BLENDING SILOS WITH INTERNAL BLEND HOPPERS . 669 8.2.3 A GRAVITY FLOW BLENDING SILOS WITH BLENDING PIPES . 671 B.2.3.5 MULTI-CHAMBER BLENDING SILOS . 674 8.2.4 SELECTION CRITERIA . 675 8.2.5 SUMMARY . 677 8.3 FEEDING TECHNOLOGY . 678 BERNHARD HIIPPMEIER 8.3.1 BASICS OF FEEDING TECHNOLOGY . 679 8.3.2 DIFFERENT FEEDING TECHNOLOGIES FOR SOLIDS . 681 8.3.3 LOSS-IN-WEIGHT LIQUID FEEDERS . 686 8.3.4 LOSS-IN-WEIGHT FEEDER . 687 8.3.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE WEIGH-FEEDERS . 688 8.3.6 PLANT IMPLEMENTATION . 689 8.3.7 REFILL . 691 8.3.8 VENTING . 693 8.3.9 ATEX . 694 8.3.10 ACCURACY & CONSISTENCY (NAMUR) . 695 8.3.11 CLEANING AND PRODUCT CHANGE . 696 8.3.12 CONTROL AND INTERFACES . 696 8.3.13 FUTURE OUTLOOK . 696 8.3.14 SUMMARY . 697 8.4 HIGH-INTENSIVE MIXING . 697 HARALD WILMS, HENNING KREIS 8.4.1 INTRODUCTION . 697 8.4.2 INTRODUCTION TO MIXING OF SOLIDS . 698 8.4.2.1 MIXING TASK . 698 8.4.2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MIXERS . 699 8.4.2.3 SEGREGATION . 699 8.4.2.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE STATE OF MIXING BY STATISTICAL MEANS . 700 8.4.3 APPLICATIONS FOR HIGH-SPEED MIXERS . 702 8.4.3.1 PVC PROCESSING . 703 8.4.3.2 PRODUCTION OF WOOD-PLASTIC COMPOUNDS (WPC) . 704 8.4.3.3 PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS FOR POWDER INJECTION MOLDING (PIM) . 704 8.4.3.4 PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS FOR BONDING APPLICATIONS 704 8.4.4 MIXERS OPERATING IN BATCH MODE . 705 8.4.4.1 FLUID MIXERS . 705 8.4.4.2 HIGH-SPEED MIXERS . 706 8.4.4.3 HEATING-COOLING MIXER COMBINATION . 708 8.4.4.4 CONTAINER MIXER . 709 8.4.5 MIXERS FOR CONTINUOUS OPERATION . 710 8.4.6 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK . 712 8.5 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING IN THE POLYMER INDUSTRY . 714 HARALD WILMS, GUIDO WINKHARDT 8.5.1 INTRODUCTION . 714 8.5.2 CONVEYING MODES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTIC . 715 8.5.3 DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS . 717 8.5.4 DESIGN AND OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS . 720 8.5.4.1 CONCEPT AND OPERATION OF A DILUTE-PHASE CONVEYING SYSTEM . 721 5.5.4.2 CONCEPT AND OPERATION OF DENSE-PHASE CONVEYING SYSTEMS . 721 8.5.5 FEEDING OF SOLIDS INTO THE CONVEYING LINE . 726 8.5.6 SUMMARY . 727 9 GEAR PUMPS FOR COMPOUNDING . 731 SVEN WIECZOREK 9.1 INTRODUCTION - GEAR PUMPS . 731 9.2 MODE OF OPERATION OF THE GEAR PUMP . 732 9.3 GEAR PUMP FOR COMPOUNDING IN THE MAIN FLOW . 733 9.3.1 DESIGN OF THE PUMP . 734 9.3.1.1 HOUSING AND COVERS . 735 9.3.1.2 GEARWHEELS . 736 9.3.1.3 FRICTION BEARING . 738 9.3.1.4 AXIAL SHAFT SEAL . 740 9.3.1.5 HEATING . 741 9.3.2 INFLUENCE OF THE PUMPED MEDIUM . 741 9.3.2.1 VISCOSITY . 741 9.3.2.2 SOLIDS . 743 9.3.3 CONTROL SYSTEM . 743 9.4 GEAR PUMP FOR ADDITIVES . 743 9.4.1 DESIGN OF THE PUMP . 743 9.4.1.1 HOUSING AND COVERS . 744 9.4.1.2 GEARWHEELS . 744 9.4.1.3 FRICTION BEARING . 745 9.4.1.4 AXIAL SHAFT SEAL . 745 9.4.1.5 HEATING . 745 9.4.2 INFLUENCE OF THE PUMPED MEDIUM . 745 9.4.2.1 VISCOSITY . 745 10 FILTERS FOR (HIGHLY) VISCOUS POLYMER MELTS . 747 THOMAS GRIMM-BOSBACH 10.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF POLYMER FILTRATION . 747 10.1.1 POSSIBLE CONTAMINATION OF POLYMER MELTS . 748 10.1.2 USABLE FILTER MEDIA . 749 10.1.3 DEFINITION OF POLYMER MELT FILTRATION . 753 10.2 FILTRATION SYSTEMS . 754 10.2.1 LARGE-AREA FILTERS . 754 10.2.1.1 FILTER CANDLES . 755 10.2.1.2 FILTER DISCS . 756 10.2.2 SCREEN CHANGERS . 760 10.2.2.1 PISTON SCREEN CHANGERS . 760 10.2.2.2 ROTARY SCREEN CHANGERS . 763 10.2.3 MODERN FILTRATION SYSTEMS - ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS . 765 10.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR MELT FILTERS . 767 10.4 THE " RIGHT " FILTRATION . 777 11 PELLETIZING AND DRYING . 781 HARALD ZANG, HORST MULLER 11.1 OVERVIEW OF PELLETIZING PROCESSES . 781 11.2 PROCESS ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF PELLETIZING . 783 11.3 PROCESS ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF DRYING . 786 11.4 PELLETIZING AND DRYING IN THE POLYMER PRODUCTION . 787 11.4.1 TYPICAL APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS . 787 11.4.2 UNDERWATER PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGY FOR POLYOLEFINS . 788 11.4.3 AIR-COOLED PELLETIZING FOR PVC . 792 11.4.4 UNDERWATER STRAND PELLETIZING . 793 11.4.5 PELLET DRYING AND PROCESS WATER TREATMENT IN THE POLYMER PRODUCTION . 794 11.5 PELLETIZING AND DRYING IN COMPOUNDING PROCESSES (FILLING, REINFORCING, ADDITIVATION, BLENDING) . 796 11.5.1 TYPICAL APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS . 797 11.5.2 UNDERWATER PELLETIZING AND DRYING . 798 11.5.3 STRAND DRY CUT (CONVENTIONAL STRAND PELLETIZING) . 800 11.5.4 AUTOMATIC STRAND DRY CUT . 802 11.5.5 SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS . 803 11.6 OTHER PELLETIZING AND DRYING PROCESSES . 804 11.6.1 DICERS . 804 11.6.2 WATER RING PELLETIZERS . 805 11.6.3 ALTERNATIVE PELLETIZING PROCESSES . 806 12 MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY . 809 CHRISTOPH KUGLER, JOHANNES RUDLOFF, CHRISTINA HOFFMANN, THOMAS HOCHREIN 12.1 METROLOGICAL BASICS . 809 12.2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY . 810 12.2.1 TEMPERATURE . 811 12.2.2 PRESSURE . 813 12.3 RHEOLOGICAL METROLOGY . 815 12.3.1 LABORATORY RHEOMETERS . 815 12.3.2 PROCESS RHEOMETERS . 817 12.4 OPTICAL AND SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS . 818 12.4.1 COLOR MEASUREMENT . 818 12.4.2 INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY . 819 12.4.3 MICROSCOPY AND IMAGE ANALYSIS . 820 12.4.4 OPTICAL SORTING SYSTEM . 820 12.5 APPLICATION-RELATED TESTS . 823 12.6 FILTER PRESSURE TEST . 824 12.7 SPECIAL SYSTEMS . 827 12.7.1 ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY . 828 12.7.2 MODEL-PREDICTIVE CONTROL . 828 INDEX . 831
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author Kohlgrüber, Klemens 1952-
Bierdel, Michael
Rust, Harald 1949-2021
author_GND (DE-588)1121710018
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author_facet Kohlgrüber, Klemens 1952-
Bierdel, Michael
Rust, Harald 1949-2021
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author_sort Kohlgrüber, Klemens 1952-
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building Verbundindex
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discipline Physik
Werkstoffwissenschaften
Chemie-Ingenieurwesen
Werkstoffwissenschaften / Fertigungstechnik
discipline_str_mv Physik
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index_date 2024-07-03T18:47:41Z
indexdate 2024-11-25T18:02:39Z
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isbn 9781569908372
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language German
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physical XXXI, 846 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme 25 cm
publishDate 2022
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publisher Carl Hanser Verlag
record_format marc
spellingShingle Kohlgrüber, Klemens 1952-
Bierdel, Michael
Rust, Harald 1949-2021
Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology
Kunststoffverarbeitung (DE-588)4114335-8 gnd
Compoundierverfahren (DE-588)4520145-6 gnd
Aufbereitung (DE-588)4003500-1 gnd
Polymercompound (DE-588)4348644-7 gnd
Polymere (DE-588)4046699-1 gnd
Kunststoff (DE-588)4033676-1 gnd
subject_GND (DE-588)4114335-8
(DE-588)4520145-6
(DE-588)4003500-1
(DE-588)4348644-7
(DE-588)4046699-1
(DE-588)4033676-1
title Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology
title_auth Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology
title_exact_search Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology
title_exact_search_txtP Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology
title_full Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology Klemens Kohlgrüber, Michael Bierdel, Harald Rust
title_fullStr Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology Klemens Kohlgrüber, Michael Bierdel, Harald Rust
title_full_unstemmed Plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology Klemens Kohlgrüber, Michael Bierdel, Harald Rust
title_short Plastics compounding and polymer processing
title_sort plastics compounding and polymer processing fundamentals machines equipment application technology
title_sub fundamentals, machines, equipment, application technology
topic Kunststoffverarbeitung (DE-588)4114335-8 gnd
Compoundierverfahren (DE-588)4520145-6 gnd
Aufbereitung (DE-588)4003500-1 gnd
Polymercompound (DE-588)4348644-7 gnd
Polymere (DE-588)4046699-1 gnd
Kunststoff (DE-588)4033676-1 gnd
topic_facet Kunststoffverarbeitung
Compoundierverfahren
Aufbereitung
Polymercompound
Polymere
Kunststoff
url http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033024149&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv AT kohlgruberklemens plasticscompoundingandpolymerprocessingfundamentalsmachinesequipmentapplicationtechnology
AT bierdelmichael plasticscompoundingandpolymerprocessingfundamentalsmachinesequipmentapplicationtechnology
AT rustharald plasticscompoundingandpolymerprocessingfundamentalsmachinesequipmentapplicationtechnology
AT hanserpublications plasticscompoundingandpolymerprocessingfundamentalsmachinesequipmentapplicationtechnology

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