Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane
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Ed. Istros a Muzeului Brăilei
2013
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Istorie ; 27 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1819688040042332160 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | CUPRINS
Habent
sua fata libelli
.................................................................... 7
Notă asupra ediţiei
......................................................................... 11
I.
Introducere. Obiectul şi metoda cercetării. Carpaţii sud-estici în
Europa central-orientală. Drumurile comerciale şi însemnătatea
lor politică
........................................................................................ 13
Cartea
I
-а.
Dinamica. Desfăşurările evenimenţiale.
II.
împrejurările
politico-militare din
jurul anului
1200.
Trecătorile Carpaţilor în invazia mongolă
....................................... 59
III. Sub
pax
mongolica
..................................................................... 91
IV.
între Ungaria angevină şi Principatele române
.......................... 149
V.
Trecătorile Carpaţilor sud-estici sub expansiunea otomană în
anii
1395-1456................................................................................. 223
VI.
De la Belgrad la Belgrad
........................................................... 307
Cartea a Ii-a. Structuri
VII. Registrul păsurilor Carpaţilor sud-estici. Terminologie.
Registrul păsurilor carpatine
............................................................ 381
VIII. Studii de caz. Clissura Dunării. Ţara Oltului
-
Făgăraşul şi
Amlaşul. Loviştea
-
Arefu
-
Posada. Vrancea,
Putna.
Poarta
Someşului
........................................................................................ 427
Clissura Dunării
....................................................................... 427
Ţara Oltului- Făgăraşul şi Amlaşul
......................................... 431
Loviştea
-
Arefu
-
Posada
........................................................ 451
Vrancea,
Putna
.......................................................................... 471
Poarta Someşului
...................................................................... 494
IX.
încheiere. Concluzii. Perspectivele cercetării
............................. 507
Listă ilustraţii
.................................................................................... 529
Dosar iconografic
..................................................................... 529
Dosar cartografic
...................................................................... 533
Summary
.................................................................................. 537
Lista abrevierilor
..................................................................... 551
Bibliografie
...................................................................................... 553
Dosar iconografic
............................................................................. 581
Dosar cartografic
............................................................................. 639
Summary
South
-
East Carpathians in the Late middle Ages
(1164-1526)
A European History through the Mountain Passes
By the force of the circumstances, an investigation regarding the late
medieval past of the South
-
Eastern Carpathians in a general European
context had to become military history of this part of the continent, seen
from the mountain peaks and alpine passes.
At the beginning of the investigation it was, obviously, the Byzantine
Empire, more precisely, the Byzantine Commonwealth at the apogee of
Manuel
Komnenos
s reign, who was able to use the Curvature Carpathians
passes and those of the
Danubian Clissura
-
the word itself is Greek
-
to try
dominating Hungary. Implicit, in spite of the scarcity of sources, it is
confirmed the impression of the Byzantine control over the lands North of
lower Danube and between the rivers Dniester
-
Prut
-
Siret to the eastern
Carpathians. This seems geopolitically normal if noted the exceptional
strategic importance of the North Black Sea steppe corridor, whose south
-
western extremity touched maritime Danube and the
Vicina
s
ford, where
another Derbent
-
Turkish Gate
-
of the Balkan Peninsula was.
Symptomatically, under the king Bella III
(1172-1196),
the former
„son of the emperor Manuel
Komnenos,
the Arpadian Hungary developed a
vast military politics in the Carpathian basin. Profiting by its episodic
participation at the third Crusade, Hungary tried to seize the Byzantine
Branicevo duchy which granted the control over the
Danubian
Clissura. Here
it encountered the new Romanian-Bulgarian Empire under the Assenids.
Thus, after a military effort which lasted almost half a century, of
course discontinuously, the Arpadian monarchy tried to impose its control
over the south
-
eastern Carpathian passes, from the
Danubian
Iron Gates to
the Gate of Russia (Verecke pass), with the purpose of expansion, disguised
as apostolic mission of Crusade and the help given to the Latin Empire of
Constantinople. Thus the Hungarian expansion confronted first the
Walachian
-
Cuman
kingdom, afterward the Walachian
-
Bulgarian Empire
of the Assan dynasty, in the area of Clissura and
Severin Banat
and the
1
PhD thesis elaborated under
ŞerbanPapacostea,
Member of Romanian Academy
guidance and officially delivered in public session at
22
June
2000.
537
Romanians from the Carpathians to the Lower Danube, the Cumans, the
Brodnics and the
Galícián
dukedoms.
The „spearhead of Hungarian expansion
-
in comparison with the
modest trickles through the passes like the ones at
Bâtca Doamnei (Neamţ)
-
have been the Teutonic Order. Settled in the
Bârsa
Country, between
1211
and
1225,
they have managed to make their way through the Curvature
Carpathian passes
(Oituz, Vrancea, Buzău, Teleajen,
Bran) and control them
with fortifications like the Cruceburg (The Cross Castle), creating the first
Carpathian
-
Danubian
connection. Certainly, only partially efficient and far
more superficial, by the
Severin Banat
and the
Cuman
Bishopric, the
Arpadian monarchy, assuming the legacy of the outcaste Teutonic knights,
tried to organise this control
(1225- 1231),
against which, besides the great
contest from loan IIndAsan s Empire, the outer
-
Carpathian Romanians
manifested
(1234).
The Mongol invasion
(1239-1242)
put an end to this advantages and
it seems already proved that the southern direction of the strategic effort,
generally led by the Mongolian leaders
Batu
and
Sübötay, was
directed to
the passes towards Transylvania and
Ţara Bârsei,
through
Rodna
and the
Curvature Carpathians. Transylvania itself was an objective for the invaders,
contrary to the venturous theories in historiography in which were imagined
junctions of armies activating at hundreds of kilometres away, in very little
known circumstances. It is less sure that the western Cumania, the future
Muntenia
and the
Severin Banat
as well as its adjacent Carpathian passes
were used by the invaders.
Valea Grisului Repede,
the
Mureş
Gate, has led
the Mongolian, guided by Transylvanian hostages, to the great emporium ot
Oradea
(Gross Wardein,
Nagy
Warad) and to the lower
Tisa.
During their retreat
(1242)
either in the Eastern Carpathians or in the
Balkans, the Mongols encountered the Romanian resistance in the mountain
passes.
Along with the implantation of the huge Mongol empire, especially
of its occidental expression, The Golden Horde, from the Eastern
Carpathians to Volga and an area of domination and influence in the lower
Danube and in the Balkan Peninsula, the mountain passes were included in a
hot frontier, which the Arpadian monarchy, on the decline, could hardly
defend. The temporary settlements of the Hospitaller Knights in the
Severin
Banat (c.
1247 -1250)
were an attempt to organize a military border,
including the local Romanian state organization
-
firstly the Lythua Country*
538
bestriding the mountains in
Haţeg
and possibly to the
Timiş-Cerna
passage.
The Mongol hall-mark on the Carpathians was very deep offering the
possibility of new invasions over the mountains, as in
1285,
after the
Hungarian king, Ladislaus „the
Cuman
tried to cross Eastern of the
Carpathian border, too confident in its kin.
Under the Mongol domination, taking advantage of the fight of emir
Noqai for the supreme power within the Golden Horde and the agony of the
Arpadian dynasty- manifested by the dissolution of the monarchy and the
creation of some autonomous regions
-
Walachia Country from the
Transylvanian
Olt,
covering the central southern Carpathians, has
„dismounted , imposing its authority gradually south from the mountains to
the Danube. In the advantage of possessing the alpine passes, the
phenomenon of dismount (descensus, in Latin,
descălecat,
in Romanian)
led to the formation of the Principality of Walachia, integrating also the
Severin
Banat.
The Danube Clissura and the
Cerna-Timi
ş
passage have
played a major part in the occidental territorial evolution of Walachia,
connecting with the interests of the
Vidin
despot and some local landlords,
former Arpadian governors.
In the program to rebuild the monarchic authority and the state, the
new French-Neapolitan
Anjou
dynasty of Hungary has focused after
1310
its
recovery effort here, the conflict with prince Basarab 1st (c.
1316 -1352)
of
Walachia being unavoidable. The Romanians won the war (September
1330-
January
1331)
started by Charles I Robert of
Anjou,
in an important
mountain pass battle
-
most likely under the fortress of
Argeş
near Arefu
-
at
9-12
November. Its failure in the expansion through the Southern
Carpathians towards the Danube had determined the
Anjou
Court to try
overtaking the mountains in Vrancea also by reviving the former
Cuman
Bishopric, destroyed by the Mongolian, as a Milcov diocese in South
Moldavia.
Under the second
Anjou
king of Hungary, the young, ambitious and
brave Louis I
(1342-1382),
it started
(1345-1347)
especially with
Transylvanian forces
-
Szeklers and Romanians
-
a genuine anti-Mongol
Reconquista ,
over the eastern Carpathians, particularly through the Oituz
Pass. It profited by the difficult situation of the Golden Horde, after the death
of the grand khan
Özbeq
(1342)
and not least by the ravages of plague in the
Tartar north Black Sea steppes. The Christian re-conquest firstly pushed the
Transylvanian border on to the eastern slope of the mountains and the
539
creation of the
„Anjou
passageway from the Curvature Carpathians to the
maritime Danube. This passageway was ecclesiastically covered by the
Bishopric of Milcov, protected at south-west by treaties with the Principality
ofWalachia
(1344, 1352).
Contemporary was organised an Moldavian Country, of
Anjou
obedience, north of the Oituz pass and having the benefit of the trans-
Carpathians passes
Bistriţa,
Rodna
(Cârlibaba, Tihuţa),
developing along the
valley of Moldova river and with the centre at
Baia
-
the capital city .
The military activity from this historical stage, by the northern and
southern passes complex, across the eastern Carpathian, has determined the
territorial duality of the Moldavian state.
The diminishing of the Romanian liberties in the intra-Carpathian
voïvodship
of
Maramureş,
alongside with the strict
Anjou
politics, even
confessional in the Moldavian Country, have determined a second Romanian
dismount , of the former
voivod Bogdan
(1364)
of
Maramureş
east of
Caipathians, creating the independent duchy of Moldavia.
The former
Bogdan
s
possession over
Borsa
and the
Prislop
pass, at
the Carpathian limit of
Maramureş,
had encouraged the dismount as well as
populating the new Moldavian Principality with people from
Maramureş.
Around the year
1358,
in order to keep its control at least over the
Carpathian-Danubian connection,
-
which opened the wonderful perspective
of an Adriatic-Pontic territorial and commercial connection with
tne
Genovese,
here, where the Danube forms a delta
-,
the
Anjou
monarchy ha
to compose with Walachia and with Demetrius, prince of Tatars of a Nort
Dobroudja Principality with the capital at Yeni-Sale castle (Enisala). Force
by the east-Carpathian Romanian resistance, which strengthen between
135
to
1364,
to accept the newly emerged Moldavia Duchy,
-
maybe
supporte
by the Mongolians, still present between the rivers Prut and Dniester
(1363-
1368),
King Louis I, hiding its intentions under the Crusade flag, directed his
military politics towards the Bulgarian tsar of
Vidin,
the aim of his action
being the control over the fortified complex of Clissura and of the
TimiŞ
Cerna passage. But this action led to a new war with Walachia
(1368-136*)
under the great
voivod
Vladislav I, supported by the
Pontie despo
Dobrotitza
-
which had collaborated with
Amadeus
the 6th of Savoy (tn
Green Count ) in the
1366-1367
Crusade. The war in the Carpathians
completed with a maritime battle against the Genoese allies of the
Anjo
from
Buda.
The decisive battles from the passes (in the Clissura and a
Dâmboviţa
citadel) led to the collapse of the entire Hungarian scaffolding
540
from
Vidin
Bulgaria
(1369).
This allowed a first Romanian expansion
towards the Black Sea, along the left bank of Danube
(1369-1372)
to
Chilia.
Having failed the direct or indirect new approaches to restoring the
effective
Anjou
domination over the two Romanian Principalities in the
years
1375-1379,
by using the Carpathian passes as well as the facilities
offered by the threatening situation of the south-Transylvanian possessions
of the
Basarabs
from
Argeş
and the wide Danubian-Pontic conjunctures,
King Louis I was forced to accept temporary half-measures. This period
coincides with closing the
Rucăr
-
Bran and
Turnu Roşu
passes with new
fortifications ordered by the king.
At the same time,
-
on the basis of the great trade relations to
occidental and central Europe, on the Danube and from the Baltic to the
Black Sea
-
supported by
Hansa
-,
the Romanian principalities, Walachia
and Moldavia, have organised a vast territory from the Southern and Eastern
Carpathian to the Lower Danube and Dniester, with a maritime facade from
the estuary of this river to south of the Caliacra cape and citadel. The
Romanian states consolidation made functional the great commercial road,
■ Moldavian or Romanian which tied Lemberg
(Lwów)
with
Chilia, Cetatea
Albă
and
Gaffa,
connecting the Black Sea commerce to the Baltic one, north
and occidental European, through Poland, with whom the Moldavian
Principality ought to have had special political relations.
The older great commercial road by Hungary, the Carpathian passes
and Walachia, tied West and Central Europe to Danube, Black Sea, Balkans,
or to Adriatic Sea,
Braşov
(Corona,
Kronstadt)
and
Sibiu
(Villa
Heřmani,
Hermannstadt)
being the crossroads.
The political expression of these relations, especially between
Hungary and Walachia is not without significance for the matter. The first
document of this series was the agreement between prince Mircea the Old
(1386-1395, 1396-1418)
and king
Sigismund
of Luxembourg, the son-in-law
and heir of Louis 1st of
Anjou.
In
Braşov,
at 7th of March
1395,
Mircea, the
transalpine
voivod,
duke of
Făgăraş
and „ban of
Severin,
sealed the act and
thereby he recognised „propitio
et
familiari
favore ,
„ac nobis ultro
et
granosissime
fuit
affectus
and especially king s aid against the Turks „lllos
immanes
et
pérfidos iniquitatis...
hostes
willingly. Therefore, previously, the
ceremony of homage took place, which was common in the practice of
asymmetric relations between states even in the late middle Ages. The real
form of this vassalage relation is still unknown, but titles such as transalpine
541
voivod,
duke of
Făgăraş
and ban of
Severin
by the king s favour reflect some
aspects of Hungarian suzerainty.
Prince Mircea s „manifesto from the 7th of March
1395
contains
mainly the military provisions of the accord with
Sigismund
of Luxembourg
personally, as king of Hungary,
Dalmaţia,
Croatia, etc., marquis of
Brandenburg. They stipulated the common struggle against the Turks and
their allies; the Romanian Prince was being obliged to participate personally
to the battle, only if the king will have come himself with his army.
Essential in the present discussion is the provision concerning the
Romanian prince s engagement „to give to my lord the king and to his anny
and to his men of war, if the king himself will go there, and if he will not,
then to his anny and men that he will send against the Turks, in the territory
of Dobrotitza or in all other lands, fortresses, countries, passes, harbours and
in all other places subjected to us, free, peaceful and sure passage and food,
according to their money, so long as they will go there, stay and retreat .
The passes, including the Carpathians , were open to the forces of the
Hungarian King for an anti-ottoman military action that was to be expanded
into the lands of Dobrotitza, then being in the Romanian Principality of
prince Mircea and the first to be exposed to the Ottoman aggression. There
were established the cooperation terms with the king and his anny, the
provisioning of his troupes in the conquered lands, the free stay and return of
the wounded. The supply of the royal army, both by land and water were
also stipulated in case of operations beyond the Danube, in the Romanian
state s neighbouring countries.
The act corresponded to the geopolitical situation: the Romanian
control over the Danube, the inclusion of Dobrotitza s despoteia and
countries in the Romanian Principality and also to the common hopes in the
Crusade.
Acting as a precedent for the following projects of the anti-ottoman
Crusades from Nikopol
(1396)
to Varna
(1444),
the March
1395
agreement
from
Braşov
had
a capitai
importance. Their premise was the Romanian
control over the Carpathian passes, low Danube and of the North-Western
Black Sea coasts from Danube Delta to Varna.
The agreement of
1395
was a reply to the Ottoman expansion;
noticed since
1369, 1372 - 1374
in a nearer background, it touched the
Danube. But in the spirit of Louis I, his father-in-law and predecessor, king
Sigismund
of Luxembourg tried
agam,
in
1395,
to submit Moldavia. His
campaign is well known for the important Romanian resistance under the
542
command of
voivod Ştefan
I at the
Ghimeş
pass. The campaign was a
useless waste of Christian forces, an alteration of the Crusades ideals, so
necessary when the sultan Baiazid s army crossed the Danube against
Walachia (May
1395),
in order to get to the southern Transylvania.
An army led by Mircea the Old and the skilful Stibor of Stiboricz,
together with Transylvanian troupes, succeeded to regain Walachia and to
restore the
Danubian
frontier, in spite of the unhappy end of the Nikopol
Crusade (October-November
1396).
But the aggressive ottoman military
frontier (Turkish ug) was being established alongside the right bank of the
river.
The champion of the Crusade on the Low Danube was Mircea the
Old in the years
1396-1402,
his Principality, Walachia, being in the first line
of the resistance against the Ottoman expansion.
The collapse of the first Ottoman Empire after the battle of Angora
(1402)
marked the rising of Walachia under prince Mircea at the level of a
leading power in South-East Europe. The
Giurgiu
and
Drâstra
(former
Byzantine Dorostolon, now Silistra) fortresses have become a real axis of the
Romanian Principality, extended from the Southern Carpathians to the
maritime Balkans.
Restored under sultans Mehmed I Celebi and
Murad
the
Unii,
the new
Ottoman Empire has set its goal. According to the traditional three directions
°f Islam expansion in Europe, by right, by middle and by left, the conquest
°fthe Carpathian countries was apriority in the north of the Balkans. From
the starting base of the Ottoman
Danubian ug,
the campaigns of
1419-1420,
1422-1428, 1432, 1438,
some of them led personally by the sultans, have
Wed and temporary succeeded to break the fortified defence of the
Danubian
Chssura, the
Cerna-Timiş
passage and from the Southern Carpathians passes
tî]e
Turkish forces have fought some battles even in the South of
Transylvania.
Together with the Ottoman attempts to take control over the Low
Danube and imposing the Muslim administration in Walachia,
-
distinguishable especially in the spring of
1442 -
the war of
1419-1428
and
the campaign that came after the year
1432
rules out the great Romanian
Slavist Petre
P. Panaitescu s theory, in which he asserts that the eccentric
Position of the Romanian states together with an Ottoman general reduction
strategy that aimed at
Wien -
on a Belgrade-Budapest axis
-,
would explain
why the Romanian Principalities weren t conquered by the Ottoman Empire.
543
The resistance, even though intermittent, has managed to keep and
save the Lower Danube frontier of Christianity, from the Clissura to
Drâstor
city and from here to the Black Sea, by the tenacious efforts of Walachia s
princes Dan the lfd and Basarab the IInd and the Hungary s ruler, emperor
and king
Sigismund
of Luxemburg.
It was mainly the merit of
lancu
of
Hunedoara,
propelled by the same
emperor, to have retrieved the hot Ottoman border,
-
which have temporarily
moved on the Southern Carpathians
-,
to the Lower Danube and, by the
means of his Balkans campaigns
(1442-1448),
to have imposed the
international status of Walachia, as a buffer state between the Ottoman
Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary.
The possession of Belgrade and the acquisition of
Chilia
citadel
secured the positions of the Kingdom, it southern frontier by this concept of
advanced defence on the Danube. A contribution to the reinforcement on the
river s frontier was also the extension of the unfortunate Varna Crusade
(1444),
by the successful naval campaign of the little Burgundy-Papacy
squadron in the Black Sea and especially conjoint with Romanian forces on
the Lower Danube
(1445).
The great Ottoman attempt to conquer Belgrade
(1456)
was rejected
by the Crusade forces led by
lancu
de Hunedoara.
The victory stabilized the
military situation at the low and middle Danube connection.
The new circumstances and the balance of forces established between
the death of Mircea the Old
(1418)
and the siege of Belgrade
(1456)
determined the new rapports between Walachia and Hungary. Therefore, at
6
September
1457,
the oath of allegiance of Vlad the Impaler to king Ladislaus
of Hungary, invoked the example of faith set by prince Mircea s dynasty
devoted to the Saint Crown and explained the act as fear of Turks. The
homage was indirect, through the leaders of
Braşov
and
Bârsa
Country. The
main clause was of military nature:
„nos
contra
Turcos
et
aliorum ipsoruin
inimicorum
potencias
viribus
et
potencii
in deffensione
resistere debeamus .
By this act the Romanian prince promised the free trade in Walachia and
protection for the king s subjects and citizens of
Bârsa
Country.
Blocked at Belgrade in
1456,
the Ottoman expansion returned to the
„right way by a great campaign of sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror
oí
Constantinople against Walachia and
Chilia
(1462).
This campaign was a
bitter defeat in comparison to the Romanian resistance, heroically led by the
Impaler. From this moment until the end of the 15th Century the south-east
Carpathian passes were involved in the
Pontic
war, in the effort that the
544
Ottoman Empire
had initiated in
1452
to obtain the entire basin of the Black
Sea, accelerated since the conquest of Constantinople.
Once again the Louis
ľs
spirit prevailed in the conception of king
Mathia s campaign in Moldavia
(1467),
through which he was trying to find
a global solution to the dispute started by prince Stefan s conquest of
Chilia
on the Danube
(1465).
The campaign was remarkable by the fearsome
battles to defend the Oituz pass and then, during the retreat, by the Romanian
harassing the enemy retreat by the
Ghimeş
pass.
As a reply to the king s aggression, by his incursions over the East
Carpathians, in the Transylvanian Szeklers counties,
Ştefan
of Moldavia
managed to ensure, at the end, their military cooperation against the Turks.
The
Pontic
war of Moldavia with the Ottoman Empire
(1469-1479,
1480-1486)
succeeded immediately. During the war, one of the most
interesting pages regarding the strategy of the Carpathians passes was
written in the summer of
1476,
when sultan
Mehmet
the
ІҐ
started his
campaign against Stephen the Great of Moldavia.
in the previous campaign
(1474-1475),
the location of the Romanian power
core was situated in a central position, between the rivers Siret and Prut, at
Vaslui.
In
1476,
at the beginning of the new confrontation with the Ottoman
Empire, the layout of the main camp of the Moldavian army at
Pârâul Alb
(Războieni, Neamţ)
reveals an elaborate Christian plan of campaign, in
which the Carpathian passes should have played a crucial part. Lured on the
road of Siret and upper along River Moldavia s valley, the sultan Mehmed
H armies communication lines were to be cut by the forces led by the
Palatine count Stephen
Báthory
and former Wallachian prince Vlad the
ïmpaler,
clearing the Oituz pass right after the Ottoman forces would have
moved North. In a document from
Breţcu
(25th of August
1476),
count
Báthory
reported to King
Mathias
Corvin
that the sultan, who had been
warned about the approaching of the Hungarian-Transylvanian armed forces,
had ordered his ally, prince Basarab
Laiotă,
to launch an attack with several
thousand Turks through the Oituz pass in
Bârsa
Country. Nevertheless,
Basarab
Laiotă
s
troupes were defeated and repulsed from the pass by the
Palatine s army, arrived in forced march to occupy battle positions at
Breţcu.
The amass of the Christian army
-
ready to attack from the mountain and to
cut the Ottoman communication lines
-
determined
Mehmet
the II
-
then at
the siege of the
Neamţul
fortress
-
to order the general retreat. At once, some
tr°upes have been sent to Stephen the Great, who was retired in the
mountains
-
perhaps at a northerly pass.
545
Stephen
Báthory
s
army didn t leave its central position because
there was still a danger that Basarab
Laiotă,
now retired in Walachia, would
enter
-
from the south
-
in
Bârsa
Country.
Ştefan
the Great
-
remembering
the sultan s campaign disposition in
1462 -
warned about the danger that the
Ottomans should leave
a contester
prince at the Danube
-
obviously
appointed and supported by the Sultan s troupes.
Thus, the outer south-eastern Carpathians (Curvature Carpathians) and the
Bârsa
Country passes had become a real strategic knot, whose role
probably, with more documentary sources, could be followed since the
Teutonic Order establishment in
1211-1225.
From
1476
to
1482,
trans-Carpathian offensive operations from
Transylvania and Moldavia were meant to maintain Walachia inside the
Moldo-Hungarian anti-ottoman alliance. The conquest of
Crăciuna
fortress
from Walachia and its garrison by Stephen the Great in
1482
tried to assure,
eventually to close, the south-western frontier of Moldavia on its shortest
segment between the Curvature Carpathians and the maritime Danube,
covering the
Chilia
road through Oituz pass.
After the conquest of
Chilia
and
Cetatea Albă
by the Ottoman
Empire(1484) and the end of the great
Pontic
war
(1486),
Stephen the Great
and his councillors were preoccupied by the „steppe politics , by the Asian
trade connections north to the Black Sea that would have been able to
shortcut the Far East Ottoman commerce. The Romanian prince has also
tried to obtain a new segment of the „Moldavian commercial route, as a
compensation for the lost of the southern one, by opening the
Galícián
Počutia
question.
The conquest of
Chilia
and
Cetatea Albă
(1484)
fulfilled the Ottoman
„right way operation concerning Black Sea by an effectively control over
the whole
Pontic
basin.
„Thinner by the lost of their maritime
façade,
the two Romanian
Principalities remained nonetheless an outer Carpathian shield to the
Kingdom of Hungary and not least for the southern Poland.
In a remarkable strategic balance, sultan
Selim
I
(1512-1520),
having
a significant
Pontic
experience
-
as former governor of Caffa
(Kefe)
-
has
added to the Ottoman conquests, „on the left hand , the entire eastern and
southern Mediterranean basin.
This gave to sultan Suleyman
1 (1520-1566)
the opportunity to
resume the „right way .
546
A large scale geopolitical transformation took place after
1521,
when
the medieval Kingdom of Hungary rapidly disintegrated. The operations
against Belgrade started in the spring of
1521
and, as a consequence of the
fall of the
Danubian
city, the collapse of the Christian fortified system of
Chssura succeeded, the Transylvanian defence being retreated in the Cerna-
Timiş
passage at Mehadia.
The new objective set by the sultan to the
Danubian
Ottoman ug s
Jorces was again the conquest of Walachia.
A new, difficult, crucial war of attrition was needed, from
1522
to
1524,
for the vivid forces of Walachia, led by prince
Radu
of
Afumaţi
and
actively sustained through the Southern Carpathian passes by the contingent
of the Transylvanian vo ivod, John
Zápolya,
to avoid the transformation of
Romanian Principality into an Ottoman province (pashalic) and the
establishment, in a first instance, of the Ottoman ug on the mountains.
The circumstances of the Romanian resistance from
1522-1524,
the
role then played by the South Carpathians, had contributed effectively to
modifying the
1526
campaign plan of the sultan against Hungary. For this
campaign Suleyman the Magnificent abandoned his first plan
-
of crossing
L amibe,
to conquer Walachia and Transylvania and only after Hungary
-,
and adopted a new strategy: a direct offensive from Belgrade to
Buda.
After the
Mohács
defeat of Hungarians
(1526),
the limits of the
Romanian manoeuvre in foreign politics have been reducing gradually along
w th the changes in the power balance in the advantage of the tri-continental
Ottoman Empire, who had the luck of a leader such as Suleyman Kanuni
0520-1566).
It is exemplary the situation in the year
1528
when, between prince
Radu
of
Afumaţi
and the political class in Walachia it deepened the
dlscrepancy regarding the evaluation of the south-eastern European situation.
Although being courted by loan
Zápolya,
whose emissary at Constantinople,
Hieronymus
Laski,
could hardly managed to free his hostage son, the prince
considered favourable the alliance with the elected Hungarian King,
Ferdinand I of
Habsburg,
who had won against his rival the
Tareai
(September
1527)
and Szina (march
1528)
battles. For the country s
lnfluential
boyars,
the treaty, signed by their prince with king Ferdinand in
the summer of
1528
brought again under consideration the status of the
country in relation to the Ottoman Empire, established after so many
Orifices in December
1524
by negotiations of prince
Radu
himself with
sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. Given the fact that in Transylvania the
547
scales did not weighed in the favour of the Habsburgs and the Ottoman
Empire was warned by John Zapolya s supporters about the „treason of the
Romanian prince, the brave
Radu
of
Afumaţi
was removed and killed
(2
January
1529)
in order to avoid a reaction on the part of the sultan.
Obviously, the whole display of events in the year
1528
can t be
reduced at the option of an understanding between some of the
boyars
-
influential, preponderant?
-
and the Turks, or at a more simple explanation
concerning their option, namely the location of their properties closer to the
Ottoman dominated Danube. It would be necessary to research the whole
political European spectrum to clarify the circumstances of this political
assassinate. Moreover, the tombstone of
Radu
of
Afumaţi
mentioning the
victorious wars against the „agareens (i.e. the Turks) and the memorial
religious rituals at
Argeş
monastery for prince s eternal rest, acted almost
immediately as liberty declarations against an eventual Ottoman invasion. It
is necessary to underline that, even in those times of „decline , the
persistence of the Crusade spirit in Romanian conscience was clearly
expressed by the prince of Walachia,
Radu Paisie
(1435-1445)
in a document
addressed to the
Sibiu
city council: „And after that, I announce you that the
outlawed Turks rose with hate against us Christians, to destroy the Saint and
Venerable Cross and Christian law, therefore we Christians must unite in one
belief and one fight .
*
Around the Carpathians, grace to the shelter offered by them and
their forests there appeared the first political and statehood organizations of
the Romanian in Middle Ages. Their first military structures were forests
(„sylvae ) with
abattis („indagines ),
gates and fortified posts in the passes.
The passes evolved in connection with needs of first necessity
materials, such as salt, with the
transhumance
and with small or great trade.
Concerning the last, we can remark the interdependence between the
Carpathian passes and the
Danubian
Fords.
After the local, Romanic, name for the mountain passes
-
„pazata
(see the French
passade,
the Spanish
pasada)
by a contamination with the
Slavonic
„posada
it appeared the Romanian institution of
„posada ,
the post
of control of the passes.
The control and closing of the mountain passes with fortifications
was used in the
Danubian
Clissura (defile of the Iron Gates),
Cema-Timiş,
Tălmaciu-Turnu Roşu-Lotru, Rucăr-Cetatea Dâmboviţei-Bran, Teleajen-
Iabla Buţn
on the main directions of crossing the mountains. But the
548
research
revealed that, in many cases, the passes fortifications were turned
by adjacent mountain path, known and utilised by the locals and accessible
for a determined enemy.
The same historical analysis shows that not even the best prepared
and violent Ottoman expeditions, crossing the Carpathian Passes, like the
campaign of
Mehmet
I Celebi in
1420-1421
didn t succeed to depass the
south Transylvania and to subsist there more than three or four weeks.
At the logistical parameters of 15th- 16th Century no Ottoman
expedition could start from the
Danubian
ug, succeed to cross the river,
advance through Walachia and the Carpathian passes and then continue
with a conquest war in Transylvania.
In the most critical moments Walachia could be sustained from
Transylvania, through the Carpathian passes, this way contributing to
keeping the international balance of forces stable for the entire Carpato-
Danubian area.
Everywhere in the south-east Carpathians, Romanian people are at
the passes, there was
a Muntenia
(Romanian highlands) at the Russian Gate
(Verecke pass), the family of
Bogdan
of Cuhea, the future
voievod
of
Moldavia, possessed the
Prislop
pass, Romanian people are on
Rodna
Valley;
Breţcu,
in the great Oituz Pass was also a Romanian village; on the
domains of the fortress of Bran or of
Tălmaciu,
around
Sebeş-Novaci
pass
there are settlement of the same nation. The Emperor and king,
Sigismund
of
Luxembourg confer the defence of the
Haţeg
passes, especially of the Iron
Gate of Transylvania to the Romanian cnezes of
Densuş.
The same status
bas
the Romanian districts for the
Danubian
Clissura; around the
Timiş-
Cerna defile was a „Walachia
Citerior
( an outer Walachia ).
„Alpes Olacorum
-
the Mountains of Romanians from Latin
documents of the Hungarian
Anjou
dynasty are entirely confirmed by the
field reality and it confers another dimension to the place of Romanian in the
iate
medieval history of Europe.
„Descălecatul
(dismounted)
-
in fact the crossing of Carpathians
from
Făgăraş
to Walachia and from
Maramureş
to Moldavia
-
underlines the
Precise significance of the mountain passes at the beginning of Romanian
Mediaeval history.
The Carpathian Mountains have had a decisive contribution for the
state survival of the Principalities of Walachia and Moldavia and for
Transylvania, which remained at the middle of the 16l Century as a
European peninsula in a stormed Ottoman ocean.
549
One of the
magister
of modern geopolitics, Samuel
Huntington,
have
drawn on the Carpathians the frontier between two civilizations: „Ortodox-
Russian and „Occidental but on a segment longer than a third of
Huntington s line which divided Europe, from Baltic to Adriatic Sea, the
Romanians mounted on Carpathians and seem to contest the theory. Since
the 14th Century especially, when the Romanian statehood crossed the
Carpathian passes in order to organize a territory of the same size as the
contemporary Kingdom of England, between the mountains, the low
Danube, the north Small Balkans and Dniester River, the Romanian
Principalities gave substance to a Europe whose most easterly town was
Caffa in Crimea.
The real Clash of Civilization was on the low Danube and on the
Dniester, from the end of the 14th Century until the middle of the
16
Century when Russia was a Far East principality threatened by the Tatars. Of
course, the major clash was between Christianity and Islam and over all the
vicissitudes of the imperial Ottoman expansion in the late middle Ages, the
Carpathian passes remained under the control and in the statehood
embodiment of the Principalities, Walachia, Moldova and afterwards
Transylvania.
550
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Iosipescu, Sergiu |
| author_facet | Iosipescu, Sergiu |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Iosipescu, Sergiu |
| author_variant | s i si |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV041220533 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)856873209 (DE-599)BVBBV041220533 |
| era | Geschichte 1166-1526 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1166-1526 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Osmanisches Reich (DE-588)4075720-1 gnd Karpaten Südost (DE-588)7596036-9 gnd Siebenbürgen (DE-588)4054835-1 gnd Balkanhalbinsel (DE-588)4004334-4 gnd Ungarn (DE-588)4078541-5 gnd Walachei (DE-588)4118956-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Osmanisches Reich Karpaten Südost Siebenbürgen Balkanhalbinsel Ungarn Walachei |
| id | DE-604.BV041220533 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-24T03:33:29Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9786066540551 |
| language | Romanian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-026195102 |
| oclc_num | 856873209 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 678 S. Ill., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2013 |
| publishDateSearch | 2013 |
| publishDateSort | 2013 |
| publisher | Ed. Istros a Muzeului Brăilei |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Colecţia Teze de doctorat |
| series2 | Colecţia Teze de doctorat : Istorie |
| spellingShingle | Iosipescu, Sergiu Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane Colecţia Teze de doctorat |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4075720-1 (DE-588)7596036-9 (DE-588)4054835-1 (DE-588)4004334-4 (DE-588)4078541-5 (DE-588)4118956-5 |
| title | Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane |
| title_auth | Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane |
| title_exact_search | Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane |
| title_full | Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane Sergiu Iosipescu |
| title_fullStr | Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane Sergiu Iosipescu |
| title_full_unstemmed | Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane Sergiu Iosipescu |
| title_short | Carpaţii sud-estici în evul mediu târziu (1166 - 1526) |
| title_sort | carpatii sud estici in evul mediu tarziu 1166 1526 o istorie europeana prin pasurile montane |
| title_sub | o istorie europeană prin pasurile montane |
| topic_facet | Osmanisches Reich Karpaten Südost Siebenbürgen Balkanhalbinsel Ungarn Walachei |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026195102&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=026195102&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV036123067 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT iosipescusergiu carpatiisudesticiinevulmediutarziu11661526oistorieeuropeanaprinpasurilemontane |