Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea
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| Format: | Buch |
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Bucureşti
Ed. Acad. Române
2010
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| 242 | 0 | 0 | |a Unter dem Zeichen von Hermes und Pallas. Bildung und Gesellschaft der orthodoxen Händler in Kronstadt und Hermannstadt im späten 18. Jh. und frühen 19. Jh. |y ger |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas |b educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea |c Ruxandra Moaşa Nazare |
| 264 | 1 | |a Bucureşti |b Ed. Acad. Române |c 2010 | |
| 300 | |a 295 S. | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1819628524752863232 |
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| adam_text | CUPRINS
USTA
DE ABREVIERI
.............................................................................................................
VII
INTRODUCERE
........................................................................................................................
IX
IZVOARE ŞI ISTORIOGRAFIE
...............................................................................................
XIII
I.
ECONOMIE ŞI SOCIETATE ÎN SUD-ESTUL TRANSILVANIEI
...................................... 1
1.1.
Date demografice. Habitat urban şi populaţie
.................................................................. 1
1.2.
Date economice
................................................................„............................................... 7
1.3.
Structura socială
................................................................................................................ 29
1.4.
Statutul social-juridic
........................................................................................................ 35
1.4.1.
Negustorii „greci din Transilvania
......................................................................... 35
1.4.2.
Negustorii din Şcheii Braşovului
............................................................................. 46
1.4.3.
Gremiul de comerţ levantin
..................................................................................... 50
1.4.4.
Românii braşoveni în Ţara Românească şi Moldova
............................................... 53
1.5.
Negustorii ortodocşi din oraşele Braşov şi Sibiu. încercare de biografie colectivă
........... 55
1.5.1.
Tipul de comerţ
........................................................................................................ 56
1.5.2.
întovărăşirile
............................................................................................................ 59
Asocierea între capitaluri
......................................................................................... 60
Asocierea între capital şi muncă
............................................................................... 61
1.5.3.
Sistemul de alianţe al reţelei comerciale ortodoxe
................................................... 63
Rudenia şi căsătoria
.................................................................................................. 63
Năşia
...................................................................................................................... 73
Prietenia
................................................................................................................... 74
Originea comună
...................................................................................................... 78
1.5.4.
Date despre capitalurile deţinute
.............................................................................. 80
II.
EDUCAŢIA NEGUSTORILOR
............................................................................................ 91
II.
1.
Educaţia familială
........................................................................................................... 91
II.
1.2.
Chestiunea generaţiilor
........................................................................................ 95
II.
1.3.
Educaţia pe sexe
................................................................................................... 100
11.
2.
Educaţia profesională
..................................................................................................... 103
11.2.1. Ucenicia
............................................................................................................... 103
11.
2.2.
Educaţia permanentă. Calităţile profesionale
...................................................... 127
11.2.3. Profesionalizarea în comerţ
.................................................................................. 132
11.
3.
Educaţia şcolară
.............................................................................................................. 136
11.3.1. Legislaţie şcolară
................................................................................................. 136
11.
3.2.
Evoluţia şi conţinutul învăţământului. Manualele
................................................ 140
11.
3.3.
Elevii şi profesorii
................................................................................................ 173
11.3.4. Opţiunile educaţionale
......................................................................................... 182
11.4. Rolul grupurilor de presiune şi al factorilor de influenţă în impunerea unui ideal
educativ. Model cultural şi social
............................................................................... 183
III. NEGUSTORII ŞI UNIVERSUL CĂRŢILOR
...................................................................... 189
III.
1.
Scrierile economice şi comerciale
................................................................................ 189
111.2. Calendarele şi ziarele
................................................................................................... 193
111.3. Comerţul de carte. Bibliotecile negustorilor
................................................................ 201
Ш.4.
„Sub semnul lui
Hermes
şi al lui
Pallas .
Negustorul-savant
-
o tipologie
recognoscibilă şi în spaţiul românesc?
....................................................................... 213
IV.
TEHNICILE PROFESIONALE
........................................................................................... 227
IV.l. Comenzi. Plăţi. Preţuri
................................................................................................. 228
IV.2. Calculul economic al profitului
................................................................................... 232
IV.3.
Merceologie.
Mostre. Metrologie
................................................................................ 237
IV.4. Noţiuni de legislaţie vamală şi comercială
.................................................................. 241
IV.5. Corespondenţa comercială
........................................................................................... 246
IV.6. Arta contabilităţii
......................................................................................................... 249
V.
ELEMENTE DE VIAŢĂ COTIDIANĂ
................................................................................ 259
CONCLUZII
............................................................................................................................... 273
GLOSAR SELECTIV
................................................................................................................. 277
BIBLIOGRAFIE
......................................................................................................................... 281
SUMMARY
................................................................................................................................ 291
SUMMARY
The Orthodox traders from
Braşov
and
Sibiu
were part of the Orthodox
commercial network linking South Eastern and Central Europe and have played an
important role in the transit trade, although they represented only a minor
percentage from the entire urban population. Diverse in terms of ethnic and
geographical origin, consisting of Greeks and
Aromanians
from Macedonia and
Epirus, Bulgarians and Serbs from the Balkan Peninsula, Romanians from
Walachia and Transylvania, the group of the Orthodox merchants became
differentiated, from the legal and civic point of view, through status, position,
organizational capacity, and judicial autonomy. These differences were noticeable
in various legal conditions: as Ottoman subjects and also members of the Greek
Companies, being under the protection of the licensed privileges, admitted and
renewed by the Austrian central authorities; or as Ottoman subjects and non-
Companies members, who worked on the basis of international treaties initiated
between the
Habsburg
and Ottoman states; also as Austrian subjects, who came
under the administration and jurisdiction of the local, provincial and Viennese
authorities. Despite the concessions granted to the first, they were under the
pressure of the Austrian authorities and their economic policy that have determined
leaving the obedience towards the Ottoman authority and accepting the Austrian
one. That has lead to the expansion of the last category, that of the Austrian
subjects. Obviously, the number of these legal categories was fluctuating directly
related to the business situation and the economic policy adopted by Vienna in
different phases.
Beyond these only legally perceptible differences, which were often
abolished by the integration and mutual relationship between the Company-
members and the locals, foreigners and Romanians, the ethnic and professional
group of the Orthodox traders was structured and functioned as a multiple links
network, having the ability to attract or create new connections in a great number
of possibilities. This network based on the principles of affinity (relative,
sponsorship, marriage, friendship, common ethnic and geographical origin), which
were facilitating the commercial career of any aspirant, within the network,
through the access to all kinds of resources: a lot of relations, information,
experiences, practices, attitudes and finance. The moral values and the behaviours
associated with this typical way of organization were loyalty, honesty, fairness,
respect of the given word and the obligations under the contract, reputation,
292
Ruxandra
Moaşa
Nazaré
prestige. Practicing these rules has as a result the access to certain relationships and
positions, providing confidence, credit, goods etc. This fact reveals the cultural
dimension of the economic field, the importance of the prestige among the
merchants and the beginning of a so-called family capitalism . The consequences
of this institutional structuring are positive and negative simultaneously. On one
hand, the network and the family ties contributed to strengthen the cohesion of the
group, bear the risk, assign the tasks, ensure the continuity of the business, and
hereditary transmit the knowledge and expertise. On the other hand, the solidarity
induced by the socio-organizational structures could collapse in case of any
accident, for instance a bankruptcy could affect the whole chain of links, causing
loss and damage, like a domino game. Data on the capital owned by these
merchants show the credit and the debit size, the low liquidity, a certain fragility,
which consequently required caution, investment in real estate property (houses,
land property) and hoarding in jewellery.
This characteristic of the Orthodox commercial network influenced the
education system which placed emphasis on the communication of the professional
knowledge, made both by the family and through the relationships between the
generations. Also it distributed the roles on gender, according to the cultivated
capabilities, values and norms inbred even from the childhood. The professional
education, with its hierarchical distinct phases (apprenticeship and training), legally
established, had generally begun around
10-12
years old, because the acquisition of
a certain volume of knowledge and a certain physical and mental development
were absolutely necessary to access the profession. During the apprenticeship, the
assimilation of the theoretical knowledge was combined with various tasks and
also with a moral education. The process of the skills training was the result of a
special relationship between the apprentice and the employer. This special type of
relationship went on the relationships built in the family and that is why the
employer s authority had a particular paternal nature. The promotion from the stage
of apprentice to the stage of a journeyman, as a result of learning the essence of the
commercial trade, was a public act, formalized by a contract of employment.
Becoming a journeyman was a growing up process, the subject being intensively
tested by participating in sale, transport escorting, collecting observations on the
market, understanding the business phenomena and all the factors that influence the
market. The advice and support of the employer and his partners have an important
contribution in introducing the aspirant into the network and in gaining
professional experience. The last was essential to the promotion in his career along
with the cash resources accumulated from his activity. It couldn t be ignored the
moral dimension of the education: the priority was the acquisition of the values, the
norms, the traditions and the recommended attitudes of the group, by imitating
models and assimilating the social experience. The required professional qualities,
such as diligence, honesty, faith, pragmatism, physical strength, describe the role
associated to the commercial professional status and outline a cultural pattern that
_________________________
Sub semnul
lui
Hermes
şi al lui
Pallas________ 293
has determined the structure of a typical cultural ideal of personality. Finally, after
years of work and accumulating experience and means, the aspirants became
perfect merchants, separating themselves from the owner s company, but
remaining inseparable from the original network that has continued to guide and
influence their career. The end of the mandatory professional education by
attending the hierarchical level does not mean the end of the education process; it
became permanent by a watchful informing regarding the different techniques
used, because of the updates required by the profession.
This long and difficult trade route have given both the necessary skills and
the recognition, the legal and official character to the professional practitioners,
which there has been not recognized to the intruders or non-professionals outside
the guild. They were characterized by the traders as dilettante, being also
identifying by their characteristics: lack of adequate education, lack of capital, the
only temporary exercise of the trading due to their poverty, and especially the
breaking of the values and professional behaviour of the group. The information
from that time illustrates the merchants professional conscious and also the
necessity of a professional practicing of the commercial career. In the same time,
the study of the current concepts existing in society towards the role of the trade
has revealed not only the lack of a certain status, but rather a perception of the
commercial profession only as an intermediate trail, an access to wealth and
prestige. The representatives of such a point of view were members of the small
aristocracy, but also Orthodox merchants from
Braşov
and
Sibiu.
The information
leads to the idea that the merchants had considered a peaceful retirement and a
landlord quiet life, surrounded by family, making charity for the poor or the church
as a natural reward for a long career full of hard work and risks. That was their life
ideal. Often, the old age being not insured, was ending dramatically, for many
unmarried merchants, in poverty because of a bankruptcy or in sickness and
loneliness. The business career was evolving between two opposite poles:
professional-unprofessional, rich-poor, stable-unstable, which explains somehow
the abandon in favour of other professional careers, the attraction to other models
and a certain preference for withdrawal. Starting with this perspective, we consider
that the Orthodox merchants from
Braşov
and
Sibiu
have practiced a traditional
economic activity, without reinvesting their earnings in order to maximize the
profits, as defined by Max Weber. This way integrating themselves in the pattern
and between the limits of the pre-capitalist merchants.
The school education was completing the professional training in terms of
language skills, writing and basic mathematics, learned in a general way of
education, In terms of institutions, the traders have turned to various primary
schools, from the Romanian and Greek Orthodox or Evangelical Saxon from
Braşov
and
Sibiu,
which were depending on the local communities and on the
Greek Companies, respecting the school law only in certain limits, to the church,
monastery and local schools from Walachia, the Ottoman Empire, Venice or
294
Ruxandra
Moaşa
Nazaré
Vienna. Could be remarked the attendance to the institutions of intermediate level
such as the Royal Academy in Bucharest, the secondary Evangelical school in
Braşov
and the Roman Catholic school in
Sibiu.
The period was marked by the
incapacity of the communities to ensure a permanent financial support which led to
interruptions in the educational process and to frequently call to private schools and
teachers. An analysis of the syllabus, the text books, printed or manuscripts and the
information about the students have revealed the study of only some subjects,
considered of interest for traders such as the foreign languages, mathematics,
geography or commercial correspondence. Moreover, the traders have become a
pressure group which claimed over and over the introduction of certain study
elements, considered by them absolutely necessary for their children s future career
in business. Finally, the effect of the state policy of imposing high professional
standards, added to the educational interests of the traders have led to the
establishment of some special schools teaching trade classes, a sign of the
development, professional and institutional, of the vocational education.
The study of what merchants used to read highlights their interest both into
the general economic prints
-
customs, financial, banking, bills ones
-
and the
specific business writings providing the necessary details about their profession.
The newspapers were always preferred by the merchants because they were daily
updated, providing a continuous flow
ofinformation.
The reading of the newspaper
was guided by the professional interest to learn everything about the trade (current
political, economic, fashionable information), a long
durée
characteristic of the
business society. Analyzing the libraries structure and the traders as book holders
refines the picture of their reading: it contains religious literature, especially the
sacred history and the lives of the saints, showing their appreciation for history,
explained by their preoccupation regarding the situation of the trade and the
commercial geography, and also their particular taste to the popular books and
fiction. All these added to the presence of the text books, frequently involved in the
books trade and in the private collections. Both pragmatic and literary tendencies
design together the scholar merchant profile, a new social type in that time and
whose work is put under the sign of the trade and culture, which are symbolized by
the god Hermes and goddess Athens. He put into circulation translations,
adaptations; he supported publishing initiatives, and elaborated even original
creations. His work expressed the concerns of the business layer, opening new
areas of professional interest, typical for the merchant category.
The professional universe is completed by the commercial techniques that
include ethical standards and a diversity of trading. We mention some progress
reflected in the use of samples and endorsements. The commercial correspondence
reveals broad and deep knowledge of commercial and customs law, learned
through experience and long practice, as long as a behaviour oriented to the
respecting of the law. It should be emphasized the presence, along with the
technical terms, of the religious and moral values and principles extracted from the
____________________________
Sub semnul
lui
Hermes
şi al lui
Pallas
_______________________295
religious writings and sapiential books, such as the Solomon s and Ephrem s
parables or the Philosophical Parables. This interesting combination between the
commercial precise rules and appreciation for religious norms is the expression of
the Orthodox merchant s mentality.
The life style illustrates the interference between the tradition of the Oriental
fashion and the Western innovation, the taste for quality, the predilection for
fashion, and the practice of some sort of intimate entertainment, balanced by a
sense of economy and by the conservationism. Living places, clothing, jewellery,
some behaviours show a desire to highlight and display the economic and social
position, contrasting with the lower social strata, trying to reach the higher level of
the hierarchy and prestige and entering into conflict with the economic
recommendations given by the
Pravila comerţială
(Trade Book). As the self-
definition is concerned it is easily to be observed the taking an own professional
identity, which is doubled, well-founded in our opinion, by a sense of distinct
social position, although competed by the attraction to the aristocratic pattern and
lifestyle.
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Nazare, Ruxandra 1971- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)158152387 |
| author_facet | Nazare, Ruxandra 1971- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Nazare, Ruxandra 1971- |
| author_variant | r n rn |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV039688236 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)767765755 (DE-599)BVBBV039688236 |
| era | Geschichte 1770-1830 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1770-1830 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Braşov (DE-588)116916-6 gnd Hermannstadt (DE-588)4072443-8 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Braşov Hermannstadt |
| id | DE-604.BV039688236 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-24T02:26:03Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789732719183 |
| language | Romanian English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-024537088 |
| oclc_num | 767765755 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-M496 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-M496 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR |
| physical | 295 S. |
| publishDate | 2010 |
| publishDateSearch | 2010 |
| publishDateSort | 2010 |
| publisher | Ed. Acad. Române |
| record_format | marc |
| spellingShingle | Nazare, Ruxandra 1971- Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea Händler (DE-588)4221401-4 gnd Orthodoxe Gemeinde (DE-588)7666780-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4221401-4 (DE-588)7666780-7 (DE-588)116916-6 (DE-588)4072443-8 |
| title | Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea |
| title_auth | Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea |
| title_exact_search | Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea |
| title_full | Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea Ruxandra Moaşa Nazare |
| title_fullStr | Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea Ruxandra Moaşa Nazare |
| title_full_unstemmed | Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea Ruxandra Moaşa Nazare |
| title_short | Sub semnul lui Hermes şi al lui Pallas |
| title_sort | sub semnul lui hermes si al lui pallas educatie si societate la negustorii ortodocsi din brasov si sibiu la sfarsitul secolului al xviii lea si inceputul secolului al xix lea |
| title_sub | educaţie şi societate la negustorii ortodocşi din Braşov şi Sibiu la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea şi începutul secolului al XIX-lea |
| topic | Händler (DE-588)4221401-4 gnd Orthodoxe Gemeinde (DE-588)7666780-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Händler Orthodoxe Gemeinde Braşov Hermannstadt |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024537088&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024537088&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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