Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Toruń
Marszałek
2011
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| Schriftenreihe: | Europe at XXI
2 |
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Europolizacja |b kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa |c Anna Jawor |
| 246 | 1 | 3 | |a Europolization |
| 264 | 1 | |a Toruń |b Marszałek |c 2011 | |
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| 490 | 1 | |a Europe at XXI |v 2 | |
| 500 | |a PST: Europolization. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1819710356428161024 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Spis
tresei
Wstęp
.................................................................................................. 9
Kto ty jesteś?... Kultura jako „siła fatalna
.......................................... 14
Istota kultury
...................................................................................... 24
Kultura polska w Europie
................................................................... 33
Europolizacja
-
dopełnianie europejskości w lokalności
................... 66
Być Europejczykiem
-
Jan Zamoyski
................................................. 73
Europejskie miasto idealne
................................................................ 82
Dzieje kultury Zamościa
.................................................................... 91
Zakończenie
...................................................................................... 157
Aneks
1.
Wybrane cykliczne wydarzenia kulturalne w Zamościu
.... 160
Aneks
2.
Miasta partnerskie Zamościa
.............................................167
Aneks
3.
Spis i opisy ilustracji z CD
..................................................171
Bibliografia
........................................................................................177
Indeks osób
.......................................................................................188
Summary
..........................................................................................205
Contents
Introduction
........................................................................................ 9
Who are you?... Culture as „a fateful force
...................................... 14
The substance of culture
.................................................................... 24
Polish culture in Europe
..................................................................... 33
Europolization
-
fulfilling the europeanness in locality
.................... 66
Being European
-
Ian Zamoyski
........................................................ 73
The European ideal city
..................................................................... 82
History of
Zamość
culture
................................................................. 91
Ending
.............................................................................................. 157
Appendix
1.
Chosen regular cultural events in
Zamość
...................160
Appendix
2.
Twin towns of
Zamość
.................................................167
Appendix
3.
List of photographs on CD
...........................................171
Bibliography
......................................................................................177
Name index
.......................................................................................188
Summary
..........................................................................................205
Summary
Europolization.
Culture and Complementing Europeanism
on the Example of
Zamość
When the the 20th century with all its horrors is considered, the pro¬
cess of unification of Europe appears to be a miracle. It was made
possible by strengthening economic cooperation, and by establishing
a common financial policy and instruments. However, Europe is not
about the structure, it is about its citizens. One of the fathers of the
unification of Europe, Robert
Schuman,
said that Europe cannot be
reduced an alliance based on military cooperation, or on a common
set of political and economical goals
-
Europe needs to be also a union
of cultures. It would seem that today especially the latter should be
emphasized, since it is not the economy or politics, but culture, va¬
lues and traditions that determine us as citizens, and decide who we
are as a part of (European) society. Europe is not only a geographical
area, a sphere of economy and politics, but also a spiritual sphere,
which consists of a number of ideas, symbols and values which are
common to all Europeans, though they may be unaware of this fact.
The biggest challenge of the European Union today is establishing
a coherent identity, which still is marginalized.
The Polish are a society fairly uniform in terms of culture and eth¬
nicity. The last National Census revealed that national minorities are
only
1.23
per cent of the total inhabitants of Poland. Yet, the Polish
have a very rich heritage in terms of genetic variety. In our
DNA
the¬
re is a trace of the history not only of Poland, but of the whole of Eu¬
rope; we mixed with the Lithuanians, the Ruthens, the Hungarians,
206
I Summary
the Scandinavians, the Germans, the Armenians, and the Jewish. We
are diverse genetically. But culturally? What about our cultural iden¬
tity in Europe?
The motto of the European Union reads In
varietate concordia
( Unity in diversity ). It accurately illustrates the goals of the
EU:
strengthening economic cooperation, establishing the image of the
EU as a
single political institution representing one opinion on the
international arena, and aspiring to create European citizenship.
These goals are attained by the opening of the borders to allow free
movement of people, capital, services and goods, as well as by cre¬
ating bonds of solidarity by through an act of establishing a com¬
mon policy and, for example, currency. The motto pertains to the
cooperation between nations and to a degree of mutual dependency
between them and between them and the
EU.
This is the essence of
integration between countries, the European unity. But what about
unity among the average citizens?
Public Opinion Research Center completed a survey among a re¬
presentative group of adult Poles asking in what spheres Poland sho¬
uld unite with Europe, and in which it should remain separate. In
terms of economy, the majority supports integration
(85
per cent); in
terms of political structures and values, as well as personal lifetime
goals, the opinions are less certain
(55
and
52
per cent respectively),
in terms of culture and customs, however, only one in four respon¬
dents
(27
per cent) felt that integration would be welcome, while the
majority claims that Poland should maintain its differences. It could
be assumed, that a survey completed in other European countries
would bring similar results. Such a statement provokes doubt in the
very existence of a European identity. Also, it leads to asking a qu¬
estion predating the issue of identity: is there a European conscio¬
usness?
On the surface, everything seems obvious
-
we are Europeans, we
live in Europe, as we always have, Poland in its centre. As John Paul
II remarked: When on the evening of the 16th of October
1978...
Summary I
207
I said that I come from a distant country ... I had in mind the Iron
Curtain, which still existed at that time. The Pope, who came from
the other side of the Iron Curtain in the true sense of the word came
from afar, although, in reality, he came form the very centre of Eu¬
rope. After all, the geographical centre of Europe is located precisely
in Poland. Geographically yes, but mentally? In terms of geography,
all the member states of the
EU
have always been part of Europe, but
the Polish or the Slovaks were behind the Iron Curtain . The British,
for another matter, speak of the Continent or Europe as though
they are not part of it.
In order to establish a common awareness, there is a need for
common matters and common consideration of these, or, at least, for
a similar way of thinking about them. Thus,there is a need for a com¬
mon European public opinion, but there is none. As Europe does not
have a one common medium, there is nothing that would grant it. As
Adam
Krzemiński
writes: The national media are preoccupied ma¬
inly with their own, provincial issues... Portions of European public
opinion appear in the national consciousness when the
EU
is present
in the deliberations over the internal policy... European democracy in
the majority of cases is an issue of national states, and not the conti¬
nent as a whole. As for the good old EuroNem, it is not a TV channel
that would be a European counterpart of CNN, as it does not aspire
to create a European public opinion. It is only the economy that has
an integrated circuit of newspapers such as The Economist or The
Financial Times (in numerous language versions). However, there is
no medium that would constitute the field of intellectual exchange
on the social and cultural topics. None of the European magazines or
internet portals publishes bestseller lists of the member states of the
European Union. We all read the same American global bestsellers,
and then our own, national ones. We reach for works from the ne¬
ighboring countries usually with such a delay that there is no possi¬
bility for a discourse. The
EU
has
27
billion citizens in
27
states who
speak two dozens languages ,
Krzemiński
states, This is the reason
208
I Summary
why a European public opinion is more of a fantasy than reality. As,
despite the ubiquitous English, there is no common language, there
can be no common awareness. The language is what creates a com¬
munity of thinking and feeling, since we think in the way we speak,
and we also need to give name to what we feel. A common language
is a constitutive trait of every nation, thus, is the
EU,
the nation of
nations, the lack of a common language causes the inability to create
a common identity.
This lack of a common, universally understood system of sings
and of a European public opinion is one of the causes for which Eu¬
rope shall never be as integrated as the USA. There is no possibili¬
ty for The United States of Europe , a Churchill had wanted, since
national identities are very strong in Europe and it is not likely for
them to be replaced with a super-national, European one. As
Brigid
Laffan writes: Despite the free movement of capital, goods, services
and people (in some respects even more efficient than in the US), the
European integration in the field of language, public opinion, and
political culture in the broad sense is in poor condition. It is Europe
without Europeans; who could imagine the United States of Ameri¬
ca without Americans? This is precisely the question of identity. In
America it is of no importance whether one was born in California,
Texas or New York, or whether one lives in Louisiana, Montana or
Arizona
-
one is still an American. In Europe, one is firstly Polish,
Swedish or Romanian, and only then
-
European. Americans say:
We, the people of the United States ; it shall take some time before
a Pole says: I, European . A Polish citizen knows that he or she lives
in Europe and that Poland is part of the
EU, but
considers himself or
herself to be first and foremost Polish, as long as we live . Americans
have their American Creed, a sort of a declaration of beliefs descri¬
bing their identity as members of the American society. Apart from
France in the times of Revolution, none of the European countries
have ever established anything similar to the Creed, not to mention
the European community as a whole. Common for the European
Summary
і
209
culture are only some values originating in the Greek mythology, the
Bible, or the Roman law.
The national identity is established through an act of creating an
invented tradition (see Hobsbawm, Ranger). Invented, because it
is not eternal or natural, as it did not exist in traditional societies.
However, it functions as a tradition in the sense that it ties the so¬
ciety together on a certain level, gives the feeling of community and
identification. So how a tradition is invented? There is a need to es¬
tablish some ritual or symbolic practices, which would automatically
assume a historical continuity, which by repetition would strengthen
given norms and values. In the initial stages of the creation of natio¬
nality, we may observe such practices in the acts of funding national
history museums, establishing a national literary canon, or consti¬
tuting national holidays. Then it needs to be consolidated by means
of celebrating the national Independence Day, hoisting the national
flag, singing the national anthem, or devoting some particular years
to the authors from the national literary canon, which is, in the word
of Adam
Mickiewicz,
an the Ark of the Covenant between the pre¬
sent and the past years.
The identity of a nation is shaped by culture and it is expressed by
culture. The same is true for Europe, but the problem is that it does
not have one, universally acknowledged culture. Is is possible then to
create one European imagined community above the national di¬
visions (see Anderson)? Is it possible to create European patriotism?
The Polish as a rule do not identify themselves with Europe, which
holds true for most citizens of member states of the
EU.
Furthermore,
their identity for the most part comes not from the nation, but from
the local community, the place they live in. This fact is the reason
why more attention should be put to Europe as a compound of dif¬
ferent local communities. The second part of the book presents how
it is possible to build Europe acting locally on the example of
Za¬
mość,
which is a truly European city. Hopefully, that example would
be a step towards establishing the imagined community , which we
210
I Summary
would like the
EU
to become one day and which seems attainable.
The book opens with an essay devoted to national culture, tradi¬
tion and European identity. It describes the role that tradition played
in traditional communities and how the national identity is shaped
by the invented tradition in the contemporary times. It also pre¬
sents the meaning of tradition in the post-modern times. What is
more, the essay raises such questions as whether contemplation of
the national culture is a sign of attachment for the nation and what is
the meaning of culture in establishing European identity.
The following chapter contains a deliberation on the essence of
culture, how it is defined and how it was understood throughout the
course of history. The term culture appeared in the ancient times
in
agricultura
and meant agriculture . Nowadays, culture has such
a wide scope of meaning that it seems impossible to create one, fi¬
nal definition. As
Johann
Gottfried Herder wrote: There is nothing
more indefinite than the notion of culture . This term has been sub¬
ject to vicissitude, and it has a plethora of definitions. In
1952
Cyde
Kluckhohn and Alfred Kroeber in their work Culture: A Critical Re¬
view of Concepts and Definitions have described in detail as much as
one hundred sixty four of them. To date, it is the the most extensive
list, despite the fact that it is incomplete, as it lacks definitions that
appeared in the second half of the 20th century.
Previously, culture has been understood either as an anthropo¬
logical phenomenon (when described globally) or as high culture,
elitist in nature. Nevertheless, both ways of understanding culture
seemed to suggest that culture existed somewhere beyond . Cultures
of the uncivilized exist somewhere outside Europe, and high culture
is being replaced by popular culture. Culture itself seemed beyond
grasp until the turning point of understanding culture, which came
in the
1960s
with the appearance of cultural studies in the US. The
object of cultural studies was the everyday life and everything was
explained through culture. Raymond Williams, the father of con¬
temporary cultural studies, insisted that all aspects of live should be
Summary I
211
studied, as everything that happens during the course of life is a sign
of culture. He understood the term widely: as high culture and its
products, i.e. art, as well as everything concerning more or less cul¬
tured individuals, cultural artifacts, inducing the products of popular
culture, and culture understood as a way of life of a given group of
people. Culture is not only Culture, but a whole way of life , William
wrote in his pioneering essay Culture is Ordinary. All humanities and
social science examine people, for whom the fundamental determi¬
ner of being, the thing that defines their humanity, is culture itself.
The third chapter is devoted to the Polish culture in the Euro¬
pean context and starts with the tale from the Greek mythology. In
the myth, one day a beautiful Phoenician princess strolled along the
coast with her female attendants. She looked so alluring that Zeus
himself fell in love with her. He transformed himself into a white
bull, seduced her, and kidnapped her and ran to the sea and swam,
with her on his back, to the island of Crete. They lived on the island
and the princess bore him sons, one of which was Minos, who later
became the ruler of Crete. Eventually, she married the king Asterius,
who adopted her children. The shape of the bull was re-created in the
stars, which is now known as the constellation Taurus. The princess
was worshiped as a goddess and was considered the most beautiful
woman alive. Her name was Europe.
Greek mythology, poetry of the ancient Rome, as well as the Old
and the New Testament are the sources of symbols, archetypes, and
topoi,
that were present throughout the cultural history of Europe.
They founded the basis for what later was named European culture .
All of the Western philosophy is related to Socrates, Plato and Aristo¬
tle. The artist quote
Non omnis
moriar after Horace, poets strive to
inspire to take up the struggle as Tyrtaeus did, or they speak of love,
as did Sappho. Homers epics, the tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophoc¬
les and Euripides; the myths about Icarus, Sisyphus and Hercules;
the Book of Genesis, the Gospel and the Revelation of St John the
Divine; the tower of Babel, the Trojan horse, the forbidden fruit
-
is
212
I Summary
it conceivable that the European art, literature or culture may exist
without them?
The origin of European culture is found in antiquity, in the ba¬
sin of the Mediterranean Sea, but became the source of identity for
the people during the Middle Ages. Poland joined European cultu¬
re by the act of baptism of Mieszko I in
966.
Before that time, his
subjects worshiped the mother Earth, the Sun, and the elements of
fire and water; during the feast of
dziady
they commemorated the
dead ancestors. The act of baptism made Poland part of the medieval
universalism,
which constituted of theocentrism, an ideology shared
by the whole of Europe, which situated God in the centre, Latin as
the common tongue, similar class divisions and feudalism, and the
culture and literary models commonly shared throughout Europe,
shaping the role models.
The 16th century was the Renaissance of the Polish culture. On the
political map of Europe there was a substantial territory, stretching
from the Baltic sea to the Black Sea
-
the Polish-Lithuanian Common¬
wealth. The Union of Lublin, signed in
1569,
created a new state
-
The
Commonwealth of the Two Nations, which could be recognized as
the predecessor of the European Union. It was a state that contained
within its borders peoples of different nationalities and cultures. Apart
from the Polish, the country was inhabited by the Lithuanians, the
Ruthens, and a number of national minorities, such as the Germans,
the Jews, the Armenians, the Italians, and the Flemish. A number of
ethnic and religious groups lived together in peace: Roman Catholics,
members of the Orthodox church, Muslims, Crimean Karaites, Jews,
as well as Calvinists, Lutherans, and
Arians.
Diverse ethnic groups
were assimilated fairly quickly in the Polish-Lithuanian state. What is
more, all these groups enriched the Polish culture of the time.
In the Poland of the 16th century works from Italy, France, Spa¬
in or England were barely known in their original language. Only
after there were translated into Latin, they gained some popularity.
However, the nationality of the writers was not a matter of interest.
Summary I
213
Such authors as Erasmus of Rotterdam were simply considered to be
European writers. It is very telling that
Maciej Kazimierz Sablewski
was called a Christian (and not a Polish) Horace.
The widespread use of Latin testified the existence of common
European culture and gave proof of the continuity of the civilization.
For the Polish, it was a window on the world, but, at the same time
Latin delayed the development of the Polish language. It was during
the Renaissance that Polish was used as a basic literary material by
Mikołaj Rej,
the first author recognized to do so.
The 16th century gave rise to civic awareness and national identity.
The medieval Civitas Dei was replaced by the notion of the Mother
Land, which continued to grow in popularity. Concern for the mat¬
ters of the homeland was expressed, among others, in the works by
Jan Kochanowski.
He was one of the most remarkable Polish writers
in the literary tradition; he used both Polish and Latin in his pieces. It
was him that lifted Polish literature to the European level. The word
Europe appeared in his works only four times, but
Mikołaj Rej
did
not used it at all. However, the adjective European appeared in the
titles of the books published in Poland nearly half a century earlier
than in the Western Europe. Denys Hay, a British researcher, was the
first one to compare the piece by
Maciej
of
Miechów
entitled Tracta-
tus
de duabus
Sarmatiis,
Asiana et Europiana
from
1517
with Italian,
French and English treatises, which used the adjective European
in
1559, 1563
and
1593
respectively. In
Jan Mączyński
s
Polish-Latin
Dictionary
(1564)
Europe was defined as the third part of the Earth,
containing the lands of Italy, Germany, France, Spain, Poland, Hun¬
gary and Czech.
The first Polish term for the inhabitants of Europe appeared in
print in
1597
by Sebastian Klonowic in his poem The Fires of the
Turkish War
( Pożar wojny tureckiej ),
where he used the term
Europians . Klonowic called for all righteous Europinas to form
a military alliance against the malevolent Ottoman Empire, which at
the time had conquered a large portion of the Balkans. It was nearly
214
I Summary
thirty years later, around
1626,
that another poet,
Maciej Kazimierz
Sarbiewski, used the term Europeans . In his poem he presented the
characteristic traits of the inhabitants of the three continents around
the Mediterranean Sea: The Asian are garrulous, The European ar¬
ticulate, The African passionate . Among European he counted Ita¬
lians, Spaniards, the French and the Polish.
But were the Polish aware about being Europeans? As
Janusz
Tza-
bir writes, if we were to look for social awareness transgressing the
borders of a a country in the 16th century, we should examine the
strong feeling of Christian community, a relict of the Middle Ages.
Then there is the class solidarity, visible especially among the mem¬
bers of nobility, less important for the bourgeoisie, and virtually non¬
existent among the peasantry. At the same time the awareness of the
Slavic community in all its aspects was fairly strong. The European
awareness, however, was shared by the most narrow group, almost
exclusively limited to intellectual elite, mostly writers. Common pe¬
ople knew the name of the town or village they lived in, but only
some could tell what was the name of their country, and only a few of
them were able to state what part of the world they inhabited.
In the later part of the chapter, I shall present how the Polish atta¬
ined European consciousness what was the relation between Polish
and West European literature. I also mention the first proposal for an
European Constitution, which originated in Poland.
On the 30th of April
1831
a Polish researcher
Wojciech Bogumił
Jastrzębowski
published his original project: Constitution for Europe.
As he wrote:
Let us muster the courage for a heroic act that three hundred
generation had failed to achieve; let us crave for that novelty since we
are so eager to pursue others.
I do not appeal to all the nations of the world, because I know they
could not hear me, but I direct my words to Europe, the smallest, and
yet the most enlightened part of Earth, which has witnessed so much
bloodshed.
Summary
í
215
Monarchs and Nations of Europe! Communicate with each other,
and if a word of reason has any value to you, drive barbarity away and
cease to murder one another as it shall not bring the effects desired.
Acknowledge the undeniable truth that the harder we hit one hand
with the other, the stronger the pain we feel in both.
(...)
1.
Before God and the law all people, as thus all the nations, are
equal.
2.
National laws shall warrant the equality of men constituting one
nation; European laws shall warrant the equality of European
nations and they shall found the eternal peace in Europe.
3.
National laws shall be constituted by the nation through their
plenipotentiaries, that is the parliament; European laws shall be
constituted by Europe through Congress consisting of plenipo¬
tentiaries elected by all nations.
4.
Natural laws, i.e. Divine Laws shall be the basis for both Na¬
tional and European laws; their subject shall be humanity and
justice.
5.
The rule for establishing laws shall be the consent of the majo¬
rity of the legislators.
6.
A Patriarch chosen by the nation shall be the guard and execu¬
tor of the National laws; the Congress shall be the guard and
executor of the European laws.
7.
The former geographical borders (the main cause for bloodshed
in Europe) shall be removed forever.
8.
There shall be as many Patriarchies as many there are nation in
Europe.
9.
The nation is to consist of people who speak the same language,
irrespective of where they happen to be in Europe.
There were
77
articles in the proposed constitution. If they were
observed, they theoretically would have secured a lasting peace in
Europe. As was mentioned above, those articles were to be safeguar¬
ded by both the national parliaments and the Congress consisting of
216
I Summary
plenipotentiaries elected by all nations , meaning a all-European par¬
liament. The motto of
Jastrzębowskis
project was a maxim by Livy,
an ancient Roman historian: Pax data in has leges (peace is given by
laws [European and National]). However, despite promoting pacifist
ideas, he advocated Polish struggle for independence, which he re¬
garded as a inherent right of every nation.
Following the Third Partition in
1795,
Poland was erased from
the maps of Europe. At that time the nation was usually considered
equivalent to the state, so it would appear that once Poland was anni¬
hilated, there was no place for Polishness. However, the Polish nation
was saved by culture. Polish culture and art of the first half of the 19th
century concentrated on the national matters and helped a great deal
to broaden the national awareness. This huge progress seems to be
a paradox, since it was triggered by the loss of the Polish state. And
yet it was precisely that loss that, instead of stifling national identity,
helped to bring the national awareness it to a higher level.
The poetry of the Romantic period played a great role, it lead the na¬
tion. The main objective of the poets was to propagate patriotism and
encouraging the fight for independence. Some of the authors, however,
claimed that prolonged domination of national issues over the general
human matter is harmful for the Polish artistic life in the long run and
separates it from the European context. One of the first to notice that
was Cyprian
Kamil Norwid,
an outstanding Polish poet living in the
19th century: Behold Polish society!
-
a society of a nation, which,
I cannot deny, is excellent in terms of patriotism, but is miserable as
a society. All that concern patriotism and historical emotion is grand
and splendid within the nation, so much so I tip my hat in front of any
Warsaw street urchin; and yet anything that requires not patriotism
and not national, but social awareness is so new, so small and so mean
even, that it is frightening to mention it!
...
We are no society. We are
one great national banner.
...
Poland has the worst society on the globe
and the foremost nation on the planet.
...
The Pole is a giant, but the
man in the Pole is a midget.
...
The Sun rises over the Pole, but covers
Summary
4 217
it s eyes from the man.
Norwid
was one of those authors, who focused
on universal matters; his work concentrated on the world of values, the
artistic world, and on the cult of eminent personalities.
One of those personalities was Frederick Chopin. For
Norwid,
Chopin s music was a perfect example of art understood as a synthe¬
sis of history. It was an art, which was the meeting ground for values
of the antiquity, Christianity and Polish culture, which the outstan¬
ding composer Complements, allowing the tradition to last, as well as
adding a Polish quality to universal worldwide culture. The essence
of art for
Norwid
is Complementation. Chopin s music is not only
a continuation of the classical tradition, but rather a complementa¬
tion
ofsaid
tradition.
Some degree of indifference for national matters appeared among
the Polish authors during the turn of the century, i.e. during
ƒ «
de
siècle.
Another name for that period is Young Poland, which was cre¬
ated analogically to the names proposed by European groups, such
as Young Germany, Young Belgium, Young France. In that period,
art had exceptional value. When
Friedrich
Nietzsche announced that
God is dead , it took the place vacated by religion. A spiritual expe¬
rience was replaced with an aesthetic one, the need for spirituality
turned into interest in art for a person who does not want a supersti¬
tion to mar his or her rational stance. Language testifies that art be¬
came religion: one may sacrifice himself or herself on the altar of
art , an artist is the high priests of art , a museum is its sanctuary .
This is the language of the sacred.
The artistic output of Young Poland was undoubtedly influenced
by the philosophy of
Friedrich
Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer and
Henri
Bergson.
Contemplating art became one of the finest means of
sublimating existential pain. This is only one step short of acknow¬
ledging art as the highest value, recognizing the exceptional role of
the artist, and accepting the leading watchword: Art for arts sake.
After
1918,
when Poland regained independence, the defiance of the
national themes grew even stronger.
218
I Summary
In an independent country Polish culture aimed at escaping from
its missionary role. Young artists rebelled against understanding art
as service, against self-limitation for the greater good. They criticized
their predecessors for putting national and social needs before culture,
their art became in fact provincial, limited thematically and formally,
and it did not spark any interest in Europe due to its obscurity.
The interwar period probably was the most prolific, the most in¬
teresting, and the most crucial twenty years for the Polish culture.
Various forms of artistic life bloomed until the outbreak of the war
in
1939.
However, it was then that culture achieved a new level of
importance: underground cultural life was a means of survival for
the nation. In a dangerous world, culture provided a refuge, it helped
to forget, if only for awhile, the horrors of existence. It was the main
reason for the surprisingly lively development of artistic and literary
life during the times of the greatest suffering.
Despite unfavorable conditions, the culture of the Peoples Repu¬
blic of Poland
(PRL)
not only managed to flourish, but also achieved
worldwide renown not as an exotic curiosity, as it happened before,
but for its own sake. In the past, Polish culture was extremely herme-
neutic; all of a sudden it changed, however, into something modern
and appealing for the foreigners as well. Polish literature, art, music,
film, and science gained worldwide renown; Polish artists were awar¬
ded during international contests and festivals. However, a praise for
the achievements and the role of culture during the time of the Pe¬
ople s Republic of Poland, should not be mistaken for a praise for the
time of the regime. Culture bloomed despite the restrictions, writs
and bans. Similarly to the times of the partition when ideas of a war
for independence stimulated the creativity of the Romantic and the
Positivist
artists, during the second half of the 20th century culture
became a refuge for the artists and the intellectual elite from the ni¬
ghtmarish reality.
Paradoxically, it was the depressing reality of the Peoples Republic
of Poland that brought about many initiatives, masterpieces and out-
Summary
І
219
standing artists. Admittedly, the state spared no expense to subsidize
and promote culture. Despite the difficulties with reaching foreign
countries, Poland was able to take part in the international artistic
life and both took inspiration as well as gave original input. What is
more, the culture of the Peoples Republic of Poland was a window
on the world for the inhabitants of other countries under the rain of
communism in the Central and East Europe, as well as for the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). As
Krzysztof Teodor Toeplitz
writes, a member of the Polish intellectual elite form the that times
felt obliged to sate their curiosity for the intellectual, cultural, and ar¬
tistic life of the Western countries. Trips abroad, which were limited
and widely considered a privilege, imposed a duty of the widest po¬
ssible sharing of observations and experiences connected with it. As
a result, nearly all cultural achievements of the times of the Peoples
Republic of Poland
-
Polish school of film, Polish school of poster,
Polish music, and a large portion of Polish science, especially social
science
-
were shaped by an authentic dialog with and on the exam¬
ples coming from European culture. Paradoxically, it was during the
gloomy second half of the 20th century that Polish culture achieved
in full a European level.
In the chapter depicting the history of the Polish culture some of
its peculiarities are also shown. It is impossible to transpose it direc¬
tly to the all-European culture, no matter how it would be defined.
During some periods, Polish culture and the culture of the Western
Europe developed simultaneously and shared some characteristic
traits; most of the time, however, those cultures failed to meet on
a common ground. Furthermore, this is true for most national cultu¬
res in Europe, as the culture of every nation, and often of a region or
a city, have developed some exquisite cultural phenomena that are an
integral part of their identity, but have not appeared anywhere else.
Therefore, there is no common European cultural heritage. We can
speak of a cultural heritage of Poland, France, or Great Britain, but
not of Europe. If we think about European art, we think about the art
220
I Summary
of a particular nation, or even the art of particular region of a city,
such as the art of Andalusia, Florence, or the Flemish. Are we able
than to create European, international invented tradition ? Thus far
we have the flag of the
EU,
the anthem, and the Europe Day. But can
we achieve the level of integrity of a national tradition?
Geographically speaking, Europe stretches form the Ural Moun¬
tains to Gibraltar, from the Northern ends of Iceland to the Southern
borders of Turkey with Iran and Iraq. However, European culture
transgresses its geographical borders; in a sense, European culture is
present in both North and South America, Northern Africa, Austra¬
lia, and partly even such countries as the Philippines. On the other
hand, we have a number of traces of Arabic culture in such regions
as the Iberian Peninsula or the Balkans. Following this line of ar¬
gument, the British culture is closer to the American culture than
to Spanish one; the latter, however, has much in common with the
culture of South America.
We do not have common European culture or common European
history. We enjoy different literary works, our history textbooks vary
and so do our national traditions... This is precisely the sign of Euro¬
pean pluralism. But if we are to be united in diversity, an integration
of the continent, the system or the economic sphere is not enough.
What we need is to unite our hierarchy of values, ideas, spirituality,
philosophy and culture.
Generally speaking, Europeans identify with Europe only to
a slight degree. Their identity is determined more likely by the lo¬
cal community, their place of residence. In a survey conducted by
the Public Opinion Research Center in
2009
the respondents were
asked: What do you feel the most attached to? . More than a half
Poles
(61
per cent) replied to the local community where I live ; one
in five
(19
per cent) responded to the whole country, to Poland ;
only
3
per cent (a margin of a statistical error!) chose to answer to
Europe .Similar results were achieved in other countries (see Europe¬
an Value Study). Identification with one s country decreases for the
Summary I
221
sake of a growing sense of belonging to the local community, while
attachment to Europe is declared by a few per cent of people and it
has stayed on the same level for over twenty years. Therefore, the
task of establishing the European invented community seems to
be arduous.
Elinor
Ostrom,
awarded the
2009
Nobel Memorial Prize in Eco¬
nomic Sciences
(
incidentally, the first woman to be awarded this pri¬
ze), claims that is is impossible to communicate globally. While ana¬
lyzing economic governance, especially the commons, she came to
a conclusion that people are able to organize spontaneously, as well
as to create and enforce norms, but the mechanisms that make pe¬
ople in Warsaw work together may not necessarily bring the same re¬
sult in Athens, or in Brussels. There are wide differences in the way of
thinking of different nationalities: the Spanish differ from the Czech,
the Dutch differ from the Greek, etc. The is no such thing as a uni¬
versal recipe, which is the reason for a need of analyzing local ways
of communication, local cultural codes and hierarchy of values; only
such research can be a basis for deciphering the structure of the way
a community works together and for creating an action plan that wo¬
uld feel familiar. Elinor
Ostrom
has prepared a rapport for the World
Bank on the climate change. She advocated a polycentric approach,
claiming that the best way of dealing with a global problem, such as
the climate change, is engaging in a multitude of actions on a local
and regional levels. Simplifying the thought of the Nobel laureate, it
could be said that, essentially, she follows the glocalist watchword:
Think globally, act locally.
If a global compromise is not possible to achieve, because we
differently read and interpret signs and symbols, differently perce¬
ive the world as we speak different languages, than we need to apply
global ideas to local circumstances. A similar approach should be
taken when Europeanism is considered. It needs to be established
on a small scale and constructed in the local communities especial¬
ly because we do not share one European history or tradition and
222
I Summary
because identification with Europe is significantly weaker than with
a local community. Think European, act locally. Such a version of
glocalism, which focuses on European culture and promotes ideas
of creating European
polis in
the polycentric Europe is called euro-
polization. Drawing from European ideas and values, we apply them
to local circumstances and thus we complement both the local and
European culture, creating new meaning, new quality. The culture
reaches a new level, a new genius loci is created, and the world of Eu¬
ropean culture, as well as a shared sphere of meaning, ideas, values
and tradition, are enriched.
Europeanism in the local, through the local, and for the local;
it is the local that is the ultimate goal of the Europeans. A perfect
example of a practical realization of europolization ideas is the city
of
Zamość.
Zamość
is Europe in miniature, as in it, in it s buildings, and in
it s traditions and customs the best Europeans models are reflected,
inspired by Aristotle, Cicero, or Vitruvius. In the Renaissance period
Zamość
was a showpiece of Polishness in Europe and Europeanism
in Poland. To date, it is a model of a truly European city.
The chapters devoted to the history and culture of
Zamość
are
preceded with a portrayal of the founder of the city
-
Jan Zamoyski
and his outlook on life. From the Polish perspective, he rendered gre¬
ater service to the country than several monarchs. As a matter of fact,
in Poland he was second only to the king
Batory
and had many of his
privileges.
Ordynacja
zamoyska, the grand hereditary property, was
a country within a country : it was economically independent and it
had its own army, independent judiciary, and educational system.
Despite being attached to national tradition, Jan Zamoyski had
always declared his affinity to European culture. He maintained good
relations with the intellectual elite of his time; among his friends
were such people as Erasmus of Rotterdam. Jan Zamoyski adored
the classical antiquity. During his studies in Padua, he gained a vast
knowledge of the culture of antiquity; his treatise
De senatu
romano
Summary I
223
was the most comprehensive piece of scholarship authored by a Pole
on the subject of ancient history. His fascination with the classical
period was visible in his world view, doctrine, rhetoric, architecture...
His astonishingly vast activity in a number of areas makes him one
of the most outstanding citizens of the Polish-Lithuanian Common¬
wealth; he was one of the most talented and versatile Europeans in
history.
Zamość
is his greatest creation. As
Georgius
Dousa, a Dutch scho¬
lar, wrote about Jan Zamoyski in
1598:
Nothing shows more about
his love of the country then this city, which he founded at his own
expense, fortified with mighty walls and towers against an assault of
his enemies, and called
Zamość
after himself. As we know perfectly,
through that deed he left a monument, more durable than any pyra¬
mid or memorial, [that would make his name remembered] not only
in Poland, but in Europe as well.
Zamość
became one of the most famous European cities while Jan
Zamoyski was still alive. It embodied the dreams of Italian humanists
and theoreticians of the Renaissance
-
it was an ideal
city {la città
ideale).
Zamość
was designed and built from scratch in the middle of no¬
where. For this project, the Chancellor engaged an Italian architect,
Bernardo
Morando.
He gave the city a shape of irregular heptagon,
planned the chequered pattern of the streets and the location of the
squares: Great Market Square in the middle, and Water Square and
Salt Square symmetrically at it s side. The also designed the most im¬
portant buildings: the palace, the collegiate church, the town hall, the
academy, and a number of sample tenements. The city, including Za-
moyskis residence, was belted with powerful bastion fortifications.
Zamość
was twenty four hundred thousand square metres in area,
600
meters long and
400
meters wide.
Created in
1580,
Morand s
design of the city was based on the
anthropomorphic concept in accordance with Vitruvian ideal. As Vi-
truvius wrote: No building can be considered properly constructed
224
I Summary
without proper symmetry and proportion, which should reflect the
proportions and measurements of the human body. So how did
Za¬
mość
resemble a human body? The palace was the head , the main
street linking the palace with the seventh bastion was the backbo¬
ne , the academy and the collegiate church were the lungs , the town
hall was the heart , the street intersecting the three squares was the
abdomen , whereas the bastions were the hands and legs for self-
defense.
Such an anthropomorphic concept of organizing space reflected
the spirit of the Renaissance humanism with its belief in the perfec¬
tion of the human body. Behold the man
-
a perfect creation, made
in the image and likeness of God
-
becomes a model for urban plan¬
ning. Zamoyski and
Morando
establish a human city
-
a city truly
ideal.
However, the concept of an ideal city included more than just
a way of urban planning
-
it included a harmonious combination of
beauty and practicality. It was an idea of designing an urban system,
which would be perfect in terms of space, and which would be ideal¬
ly suited to the needs of its inhabitants. One of the fundamental pre¬
mises of an ideal city was that it should harmonize with the lifestyle,
the needs, and the customs of the people, who are different all over
the Earth. The Padua-born architect needed to follow the design of
Italian cities, but it was clear that
Zamość
could not be their perfect
copy. In order to create an ideal city, Italian theory of city design had
to be combined with the Polish tradition. Zamoyski and
Morando
were successful in that respect.
Zamość
is a prodigy child of Italian
urban development merged with the Polish culture, socioeconomic
conditions, taste, and customs.
Zamość
was designed to be a modern city, a family residence,
a strong fortress, and an important center of culture, religion and
trade. King Stefan
Batory
bestowed numerous privileges on the city:
the storage right, the right to hold fair trice a year and a market every
week. The townsmen obtained a permission to form guilds and were
Summary I
225
relieved from customs duty all over the country. The city was plan¬
ned for three thousand inhabitants. In order to encourage people to
settle, the Chancellor exempted newcomers from rents and taxes for
a period of twenty years.
Zamość
was a destination for industrious
people both from the country and abroad. Settled in
Zamość
were
members of at least ten nationalities (apart from Poles and the Ru-
thens, who lived near the border): the Armenians, the Greeks, the
Jews, the Italians, the German citizens of Danzig, the Hungarians,
the Scots, and the Turks.
The concept of a ideal city created by Italian theoreticians did not
allow for a multitude of nationalities or religions.
Zamość,
however
-
a paragon of the Renaissance tolerance
-
was home for a diverse
ethnic and religious groups. Zamoyski was very open-minded and
cared for his new city dwellers. The question of the temple is a perfect
example. The collegiate church was designed in a way to allow three
thousand worshipers simultaneously, meaning all the settlement co¬
uld be gather for a mass a the same time, since Zamoyski initially
assumed that all the citizens would be Catholics. However, when the
Armenians, the Sephardic Jews, and the Greeks arrived soon after
the collegiate church was finished, the city was a construction site of
an Armenian church, a synagogue, and
a Uniat
church. An ethnically
and religiously diverse ideal city was a native idea, that originated in
the characteristic traits of the Polish Renaissance and the personal
philosophy of Jan Zamoyski.
Currently,
Zamość
is situated in the South-East of Poland. It has
about seventy thousand inhabitants and is the second biggest, after
the main city of the voivodeship, a center of tourism, culture, and
scholarship in the region of Lublin. Called
agem
of the Renaissance ,
the historical city centre was added to the UNESCO World Heritage
List in
1992,
which confirmed the rightful place of
Zamość
among
the narrow group of the most treasured old towns in Europe.
The cultural heritage of
Zamość
allowed its citizens to feel as
true Europeans. The Europeanism of
Zamość
manifests itself in that
226
I Summary
classical and the Renaissance ideas of both Poles and Italians show
themselves in its monuments, in its space, and in its essence. Euro-
peanism is also manifested by the traces of different cultures: Gre¬
ek, Armenian, Jewish... Europeanism was created by the ideals that
were presented here by Europe s most prominent scholars, artists and
philosophers. Naturally, Europeanism would not be possible without
Jan Zamoyski, who filled the city with European spirit, which is visi¬
ble even today. However, it could be accomplished if the foundation
of Jan Zamoyski would not be enriched with symbolic culture in the
form of artistic creation, lifestyle, religion and customs. The follo¬
wing sections of the book are dedicated to showing that particular
culture.
The book presents the origin of the smorgasbord
( szwedzki stół ),
describes what was
Stanisław Staszic
doing in
Zamość,
what did the
local Jews deal in, or what makes
Zamość
superior to Venice. It con¬
tains also the details on the best jazz club in this part of Europe, the
world largest painting, how Shakespeare is staged in
Zamość,
and on
a number of other facts, which help to portray the culture of
Zamość
from its historical beginnings to the present day.
The first annex contains a description of cultural events that are
regularly held in
Zamość,
most of which have an international cha¬
racter, and all of which, though on different levels, strengthen the
European values. The second annex presents European partner cities
of
Zamość,
with whom the city cooperates in the sphere of culture.
The third annex is a list of photographs of
Zamość,
which are on the
CD accompanying this book.
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Jawor, Anna 1984- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1193149533 |
| author_facet | Jawor, Anna 1984- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Jawor, Anna 1984- |
| author_variant | a j aj |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV039610644 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)756371377 (DE-599)BVBBV039610644 |
| era | Geschichte gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd Zamość (DE-588)4248619-1 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Polen Zamość |
| id | DE-604.BV039610644 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-24T02:21:52Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788376119694 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-024461290 |
| oclc_num | 756371377 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 226 S. graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2011 |
| publishDateSearch | 2011 |
| publishDateSort | 2011 |
| publisher | Marszałek |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Europe at XXI |
| series2 | Europe at XXI |
| spellingShingle | Jawor, Anna 1984- Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa Europe at XXI Europäisierung (DE-588)4153201-6 gnd Kultur (DE-588)4125698-0 gnd Kulturleben (DE-588)4126540-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4153201-6 (DE-588)4125698-0 (DE-588)4126540-3 (DE-588)4046496-9 (DE-588)4248619-1 |
| title | Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa |
| title_alt | Europolization |
| title_auth | Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa |
| title_exact_search | Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa |
| title_full | Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa Anna Jawor |
| title_fullStr | Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa Anna Jawor |
| title_full_unstemmed | Europolizacja kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa Anna Jawor |
| title_short | Europolizacja |
| title_sort | europolizacja kultura i dopelnianie europejskosci na przykladzie zamoscia |
| title_sub | kultura i dopełnianie europejskości na przykładzie Zamościa |
| topic | Europäisierung (DE-588)4153201-6 gnd Kultur (DE-588)4125698-0 gnd Kulturleben (DE-588)4126540-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Europäisierung Kultur Kulturleben Polen Zamość |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024461290&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024461290&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV039610625 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT jaworanna europolizacjakulturaidopełnianieeuropejskoscinaprzykładziezamoscia AT jaworanna europolization |