Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures
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2011
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Eye tracking |b a comprehensive guide to methods and measures |c Kenneth Holmqvist |
| 250 | |a First published | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Oxford |b Oxford University Press |c 2011 | |
| 300 | |a XIX, 537 Seiten |b Diagramme, Illustrationen | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents
About the authors
xix
1
Introduction
1
1.1
The structure of this book
1
1.1.1
Technical and methodological skills
1
1.1.2
Events and representations
2
1.1.3
Measures and their operational definitions
3
1.2
How eye-movement measures are described in this book
3
1.2.1
The target question and the summary box
3
1.2.2
The name(s)
4
1.2.3
The operational definitions
4
1.2.4
Typical values and histograms
4
1.2.5
Usage
4
1.3
Terminology and style
4
1.4
Material used in the book
5
I TECHNICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL SKILLS
2
Eye-tracker Hardware and its Properties
9
2.1
A brief history of the competences around eye-trackers
9
2.2
Manufacturers and customers
12
2.3
Hands-on advice on how to choose infrastructure and hardware
16
2.4
How to set up an eye-tracking laboratory
17
2.4.1
Eye-tracking labs as physical spaces
17
2.4.2
Types of laboratories and their infrastructure
19
2.5
Measuring the movements of the eye
21
2.5.1
The eye and its movements
21
2.5.2
Binocular properties of eye movements
24
2.5.3
PupH and
corneal
reflection eye tracking
24
2.6
Data quality
29
2.6.1
Sampling frequency: what speed do you need?
29
2.6.2
Accuracy and precision
33
2.6.3
Eye-tracker latencies, temporal precision, and stimulus-synchronization latencies
43
2.6.4
Filtering and demising
47
2.6.5
Active and passive gaze contingency
49
2.7
Types of eye^racters and the properties of their set-up
51
2.7.1
The three types of video-based eye-tractors
51
Χ Ι
CONTENTS
2.7.2
Robustness
57
2.7.3
Tracking range and headboxes
58
2.7.4
Mono- versus binocular eye tracking
59
2.7.5
The parallax error
60
2.7.6
Data samples and the frames of reference
61
2.8
Summary
64
3
From Vague Idea to Experimental Design
65
3.1
The initial stage—explorative pilots, fishing trips, operationalizations, and highway re¬
search
66
3.1.1
The explorative pilot
66
3.1.2
The fishing trip
67
3.1.3
Theory-driven operationalizations
67
3.1.4
Operationalization through traditions and paradigms
68
3.2
What caused the effect? The need to understand what you are studying
71
3.2.1
Correlation and causality: a matter of control
74
3.2.2
What measures to select as dependent variables
75
3.2.3
The task
77
3.2.4
Stimulus scene, and the areas of interest
79
3.2.5
Trials and their durations
81
3.2.6
How to deal with participant variation
83
3.2.7
Participant sample size
85
3.3
Planning for statistical success
87
3.3.1
Data exploration
87
3.3.2
Data description
90
3.3.3
Data analysis
90
3.3.4
Data modelling
94
3.3.5
Further statistical considerations
94
3.4
Auxiliary data: planning
95
3.4.1
Methodological
triangulation
of eye movement and auxiliary data
95
3.4.2
Questionnaires and Ukert scales
96
3.4.3
Reaction time measures
97
3.4.4
Galvanic skin response (GSR)
97
3.4.5
Motion tracking
98
3.4.6
Electroencephalograpny
(EEG)
98
3.4.7
Functional magnetic resonance
imagina (fMRI)
99
3.4.8
Verbal data
99
3.5
Summary
108
4
Data Recording
110
4.1
Hands-on advice for data recording
111
4.2
Building the experiment
111
4.2.1
Stimulus preparation
111
4.2.2
Physkally building the recording environrnerrt
113
CONTENTS
I
Xi
4.2.3 Pilot
testing the experiment
114
4.3
Participant recruitment and ethics
115
4.3.1
Ethics toward participants
115
4.4
Eye camera set-up
11$
4.4.1
Mascara
119
4.4.2
Droopy eyelids and downward eyelashes
120
4.4.3
Shadows and infrared reflections in glasses
122
4.4.4
Bi-focal glasses
124
4.4.5
Contact lenses
124
4.4.6
Direct sunlight and other infrared sources
125
4.4.7
The fourth Purkinje reflection
126
4.4.8
Wet eyes due to tears or allergic reactions
126
4.4.9
The retinal reflection (bright-pupil condition)
127
4.4.10
Mirror orientation and dirty mirrors
127
4.5
Calibration
128
4.5.1
Points
128
4.5.2
Geometry
129
4.5.3
The calibration procedure
129
4.5.4
Corner point difficulties and solutions
130
4.5.5
Calibration validation
132
4.5.6
Binocular and head-tracking calibration
133
4.5.7
Calibration tricks with head-mounted systems
133
4.6
Instructions and start of recording
134
4.7
Auxiliary data: recording
134
4.7.1
Non-interfering set-ups
135
4.7.2
Interfering set-ups
135
4.7.3
Verbal data
137
4.8
Debriefing
139
4.9
Preparations for data analysis
140
4.9.1
Data quality
140
4.9.2
Analysis software for eye-tracking data
141
4.10
Summary
143
Π
DETECTING EVENTS AND BUILDING REPRESENTATIONS
Estimating Oculomotor Events from Raw Data Samples
147
5.1
The setting dialogues and the output
148
5.2
Principles and algorithms for event detection
150
5.3
Hands-on advice for event detection
153
5.4
Challenging issues in event detection
154
5.4.1
Choosing parameter settings
154
5.4.2
Noise, artefacts, and data quality
161
Xli
I CONTENTS
5.4.3
Glissades
164
5.4.4
Sampling frequency
167
5.4.5
Smooth pursuit
168
5.4.6
Binocularity
170
5.5
Algorithmic definitions
171
5.5.1
Dispersion-based algorithms
171
5.5.2
Velocity and acceleration algorithms
171
5.6
Manual coding of events
175
5.7
Sink detection
176
5.8
Smooth pursuit detection
178
5.9
Detection of noise and artefacts
181
5.10
Detection of other events
182
5.11
Summary: oculomotor events in eye-movement data
185
6
Areas of Interest
187
6.1
The AOI editor and your hypothesis
188
6.2
Hands-on advice for using AOIs
188
6.3
The basic AOI events
189
6.3.1
The AOI hit
189
6.3.2
The dwell
190
6.3.3
The transition
190
6.3.4
The return
191
6.3.5
The AOI first skip
191
6.3.6
The AOI total skip
192
6.4
AOI-based representations of data
192
6.4.1
Dwell maps
192
6.4.2
The AOI strings
193
6.4.3
Transition matrices
193
6.4.4
Markov
modete
196
6.4.5
AOIs over time
197
6.4.6
Time and order
205
6.5
Types of AOIs
206
6.5.1
Whitespace
206
6.5.2
Planes
208
6.5.3
Dynamic AOIs
209
6.5.4
Distributed AOIs
210
6.5.5
GriddedAOIs
212
6.5.6
Fuzzy AOIs
212
6.5.7
Stimulus-inherent AOI orders
214
6.5.8
Participant-specific AOI identities
214
6.5.9
AOI identities across stimuli
214
6.5.10
AOIs in the feature domain
215
6.6
Challenging issues with AOIs
216
CONTENTS
I
Xiii
6.6.1
Choosing and positioning AOIs
217
6.6.2
Overlapping AOIs
221
6.6.3
Deciding the size of an AOI
223
6.6.4
Data samples or fixations and
saccades?
224
6.6.5
Dealing with inaccurate data
224
6.6.6
Normalizing AOI measures to size, position, and content
225
6.6.7
AOIs in gaze-overlaid videos
227
6.7
Summary: events and representations from AOIs
229
7
Attention Maps—Scientific Tools or Fancy Visualizations?
231
7.1
Heat map settings dialogues
231
7.2
Principles and terminology
233
7.3
Hands-on advice for using attention maps
238
7.4
Challenging issues: interpreting and building attention maps
239
7.4.1
Interpreting attention map visualizations
239
7.4.2
How many fixations/participants?
243
7.4.3
How attention maps are built
244
7.5
Usage of attention maps other than for visualization
248
7.5.1
Using attention maps to define AOIs
248
7.5.2
Attention maps as image and data processing tools
250
7.5.3
Using attention maps in measures
252
7.6
Summary: attention map representations
252
8
Scanpaths—Theoretical Principles and Practical Application
253
8.1
What is a scanpath?
253
8.2
Hands-on advice for using scanpaths
255
8.3
Usages of scanpath visualization
256
8.3.1
Data quality checks
257
8.3.2
Data analysis by visual inspection
257
8.3.3
Exhibiting scanpaths in publications
259
8.4
Scanpath events
262
8.4.1
The backtrack
262
8.4.2
The regression family of events
263
8.4.3
The look-back and inhibition of return
264
8.4.4
The look-ahead
265
8.4.5
The local and global subscans
265
8.4.6
Ambient versus focal fixations
266
8.4.7
The sweep
267
8.4.8
The reading and scanning events
267
8.5
Scanpath representations
268
8.5.1
Symbol sequences
269
8.5.2
Vector sequences 2?1
8.5.3
Attention map sequences
272
8.6
Principles for scanpath comparison
273
Xiv 1 CONTENTS
8.6.1
Representation
8.6.2
Simplification
8.6.3
Sequence alignment
8.6.4
Calculation
8.6.5
Pairwise versus groupwise comparison
8.7
Unresolved issues concerning scanpaths
8.7.1
Relationships between scanpaths and cognitive processes
8.7.2
Scanpath Theory
8.7.3
Scanpath planning
8.7.4
The average scanpath
8.7.5
Comparing scanpaths
274
274
274
277
278
278
279
280
281
282
283
8.8
Summary: scanpath events and representations
284
9
Auxiliary Data: Events and Representations
286
9.1
Event-based (»alignment
286
9.1.1
Alignment of eye-tracking events with auxiliary data
287
9.1.2
Latencies between events in eye-tracking and auxiliary data
289
9.2
Triangulating eye-movement data with verbal data
290
9.2.1
Detecting events in verbal data: transcribing verbalizations and segmenting them
into idea units
292
9.2.2
Coding of verbal data units
293
9.2.3
Representations, measures, and statistical considerations for verbal data
295
9.2.4
Open issues: how to co-analyse eye-movement and verbal data
296
9.3
Summary: events and representations with auxiliary data
296
Ш
MEASURES
10
Movement Measures
301
10.1
Movement direction measures
301
10.1.1
Saccadfc direction
302
10.1.2
Glissacfic direction
308
10.1.3
Microsaceadic direction
308
10.1.4
Smooth pursuit direction
309
10.1.5
Scanpath direction
310
10.2
Movement amplitude measures
311
10.2.1
Saccadic amplitude
312
10.2.2
Glissadic amplitude
317
10.2.3
Microsaceadic amplitude
317
10.2.4
Smooth pursuit length
319
10.2.5
Scanpath length
319
10.2.6
Blink amplitude
320
10.3
Movement duration measures
321
10.3.1
Saccadfc duration
321
CONTENTS
I XV
10.3.2 Scanpath
duration
323
10.3.3 Blink
duration
324
10.4
Movement velocity measures
326
10.4.1
Saccadic velocity
326
10.4.2
Smooth pursuit velocity
329
10.4.3
Scanpath velocity and reading speed
330
10.4.4
Pupil constriction and dilation velocity
331
10.5
Movement acceleration measures
332
10.5.1
Saccadic acceleration/deceleration
332
10.5.2
Skewness of the saccadic velocity profile
333
10.5.3
Smooth pursuit acceleration
335
10.5.4
Saccadic jerk
335
10.6
Movement shape measures
336
10.6.1
Saccadic curvature
336
10.6.2
Glissadic curvature
337
10.6.3
Smooth pursuit: degree of smoothness
338
10.6.4
Global to local scanpath ratio
338
10.7
AOI order and transition measures
339
10.7.1
Order of first AOI entries
339
10.7.2
Transition matrix density
341
10.7.3
Transition matrix entropy
341
10.7.4
Number and proportion of specific subscans
342
10.7.5
Unique AOIs
343
10.7.6
Statistical analysis of a transition matrix
344
10.8
Scanpath comparison measures
346
10.8.1
Correlation between sequences
346
10.8.2
Attention map sequence similarity
347
10.8.3
The string edit distance
348
10.8.4
Refined AOI sequence alignment measures
353
10.8.5
Vector sequence alignment
354
11
Position Measures
356
11.1
Basic position measures
357
11.1.1
Position
357
11.1.2
Landing position in AOI
358
11.2
Position dispersion measures
359
11.2.1
Comparison of dispersion measures
359
11.2.2
Standard deviation, variance, and RMS
360
11.2.3
Range
362
11.2.4
Nearest neighbour index
363
11.2.5
The convex hull area
364
11.2.6
Bivariate contour ellipse area (BCEA)
365
11.2.7
Skewness of the Vbronoi cell distribution
366
XVi
I
CONTENTS
11.2.8
Coverage, and volume under an attention map
367
11.2.9
Relative entropy and the Kullback-Leibler Distance (KLD)
368
11.2.10
Average landing altitude
369
11.3
Position similarity measures
370
11.3.1
Euclidean distance
370
11.3.2
Mannan
similarity index
370
11.3.3
The earth mover distance
371
11.3.4
The attention map difference
372
11.3.5
Average landing altitude
373
11.3.6
The angle between dwell map vectors
374
11.3.7
The correlation coefficient between two attention maps
375
11.3.8
The Kullback-Leibler distance
376
11.4
Position duration measures
376
11.4.1
The inter-microsaccadic interval (IMSI)
376
11.4.2
Fixation duration
377
11.4.3
The skewness of the frequency distribution of fixation durations
384
11.4.4
First fixation duration after onset of stimulus
384
11.4.5
First fixation duration in an AOI, and also the second
385
11.4.6
Dwell time
386
11.4.7
Total dwell time
389
11.4.8
First and second pass (dwell) times in an AOI
389
11.4.9
Reading depth
390
11.5
Pupil diameter
391
11.6
Position data and confounding factors
394
11.6.1
Participant brainware and substances
395
11.6.2
Participant cultural background
395
11.6.3
Participant experience and anticipation
396
11.6.4
Communication, imagination, and problem solving
396
11.6.5
Central bias
397
11.6.6
The stimulus
397
12
Numeroslty Measures
399
12.1
Saccades:
number, proportion, and rate
403
12.1.1
Number of
saccades
404
12.1.2
Proportion of
saccades
404
12.1.3
Saocadicrate
404
12.2
Glissadic proportion
405
12.3
Microsaccadic rate
406
12.4
Square-wave jerk rate
407
12.5
Smooth pursuit rate
408
12.6
Blink rate
410
12.7
Fixations: number, proportion, and rate
412
12.7.1
Number of fixations
412
CONTENTS
I
XVÍi
12.7.2 Proportion
of fixations
415
12.7.3
Fixation rate
4Í6
12.8
Dwells: number, proportion, and rate
417
12.8.1
Number of dwells (entries) in an area of interest
417
12.8.2
Proportion of dwells to an area of interest
418
12.8.3
Dwell rate
419
12.9
Participant, area of interest, and trial proportion
419
12.9.1
Participant looking and skipping proportions
419
12.9.2
Proportion of areas of interest looked at
421
12.9.3
Proportion of trials
421
12.10
Transition number, proportion, and rate
422
12.10.1
Number of transitions
422
12.10.2
Number of returns to an area of interest
423
12.10.3
Transition rate
424
12.11
Number and rate of regressions, backtracks, look-backs, and look-aheads
425
12.11.1
Number of regressions in and between areas of interest
425
12.11.2
Number of regressions out of and into an area of interest
426
12.11.3
Regression rate
426
12.11.4
Number of backtracks
427
12.11.5
Number of look-aheads
427
13
Latency and Distance Measures
428
13.1
Latency measures
429
13.1.1
Saccadic latency
430
13.1.2
Smooth pursuit latency
432
13.1.3
Latency of the reflex blink
434
13.1.4
Pupil dilation latency
434
13.1.5
EFRPs—eye fixation related potentials
436
13.1.6
Entry time in AOI
437
13.1.7
Thresholded entry time
438
13.1.8
Latency of the proportion of participants over time
440
13.1.9
Return time
442
13.1.10
Eye-voice latencies
442
13.1.11
Eye-hand span
445
13.1.12
The eye-eye span (cross-recurrence analysis)
447
13.2
Distances
447
13.2.1
Eye-mouse distance
448
13.2.2
Disparities
449
13.2.3
Smooth pursuit gain
450
13.2.4
Smooth pursuit phase
451
13.2.5
Saccadic gain
452
14
What are Eye-Movement Measures and How can they be Harnessed?
454
14.1
Eye-movement measures: plentiful but poorly
accessible
454
xviii
¡CONTENTS
14.2
Measure concepts and operationalizing them
456
14.3
Proposed model of eye-tracking measures
458
14.4
Classification of eye-movement measures
463
14.5
How to construct even more measures
465
14.6
Summary
468
References
469
Index
521
We make
3-5
eye movements per second, and these movements are crucial in helping us deal with
the vast amounts of information we encounter in our everyday lives. In recent years, thanks to the
development of eye-tracking technology, there has been a growing interest in monitoring and measuring
these movements, with a view to understanding how we attend to and process the visual information
around us.
Eye tracking as a research tool is now more accessible than ever, and is growing in popularity amongst
researchers from a whole host of different disciplines. Usability analysts, sports scientists, cognitive
psychologists, reading researchers, psycholinguists, neurophysiologists, electrical engineers, and
others all have a vested interest in eye tracking for different reasons. However, despite the scientific
advancements and technological innovations resulting from recording eye movements, the growth of eye
tracking also presents a variety of challenges
—
in particular how to design an eye-tracking experiment
and analyse the data to fit your needs.
This volume is a much needed comprehensive handbook of eye-tracking methodology. It describes how
to evaluate and acquire an eye-tracker, how to plan and design an eye-tracking study, and how to record
and analyse eye-movement data. Besides technical details and theory, the heart of the book revolves
around practicality—how raw data samples are converted into fixations and
saccades
using event
detection algorithms, how the different representations of eye-movement data are calculated using areas
of interest (AOIs), heat maps and scanpaths, and how all the measures of eye movements relate to
these processes.
Part I presents the technology and skills needed to perform high-quality research with eye-trackers.
Part II covers the predominant methods applied to the data which eye-trackers record. These include
the parsing of raw sample data into oculomotor events, and how to calculate representations of eye
movements such as transition matrices. Part HI gives a comprehensive outline of the measures which
can be calculated using the events and representations described in Part II. This is a taxonomy of the
measures available to eye-tracking researchers, sorted by type of movement of the eyes and
type of analysis.
For anyone in the sciences considering conducting research involving eye tracking, this book is an
essential reference.
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1062998340 |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV039610513 |
| classification_rvk | CP 2500 ST 278 |
| classification_tum | PSY 205 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)756371291 (DE-599)BSZ345552334 |
| dewey-full | 612.8/4 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 612 - Human physiology |
| dewey-raw | 612.8/4 |
| dewey-search | 612.8/4 |
| dewey-sort | 3612.8 14 |
| dewey-tens | 610 - Medicine and health |
| discipline | Informatik Psychologie Medizin |
| edition | First published |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV039610513 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2025-02-03T17:28:01Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780199697083 9780198738596 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-024461162 |
| oclc_num | 756371291 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-522 DE-863 DE-BY-FWS DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-20 DE-29 DE-1049 DE-11 DE-525 DE-83 DE-1043 DE-91 DE-BY-TUM DE-739 DE-634 DE-384 DE-703 DE-N2 DE-188 DE-706 DE-1051 |
| owner_facet | DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-522 DE-863 DE-BY-FWS DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-20 DE-29 DE-1049 DE-11 DE-525 DE-83 DE-1043 DE-91 DE-BY-TUM DE-739 DE-634 DE-384 DE-703 DE-N2 DE-188 DE-706 DE-1051 |
| physical | XIX, 537 Seiten Diagramme, Illustrationen |
| publishDate | 2011 |
| publishDateSearch | 2011 |
| publishDateSort | 2011 |
| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spellingShingle | Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures Augenfolgebewegung (DE-588)4301487-2 gnd Visuelles System (DE-588)4134101-6 gnd Visuelle Wahrnehmung (DE-588)4078921-4 gnd Messung (DE-588)4038852-9 gnd Visuelle Aufmerksamkeit (DE-588)4329020-6 gnd Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation (DE-588)4125909-9 gnd Augenbewegung (DE-588)4003583-9 gnd Bildverarbeitung (DE-588)4006684-8 gnd Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4301487-2 (DE-588)4134101-6 (DE-588)4078921-4 (DE-588)4038852-9 (DE-588)4329020-6 (DE-588)4125909-9 (DE-588)4003583-9 (DE-588)4006684-8 (DE-588)4155046-8 |
| title | Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures |
| title_auth | Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures |
| title_exact_search | Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures |
| title_full | Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures Kenneth Holmqvist |
| title_fullStr | Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures Kenneth Holmqvist |
| title_full_unstemmed | Eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures Kenneth Holmqvist |
| title_short | Eye tracking |
| title_sort | eye tracking a comprehensive guide to methods and measures |
| title_sub | a comprehensive guide to methods and measures |
| topic | Augenfolgebewegung (DE-588)4301487-2 gnd Visuelles System (DE-588)4134101-6 gnd Visuelle Wahrnehmung (DE-588)4078921-4 gnd Messung (DE-588)4038852-9 gnd Visuelle Aufmerksamkeit (DE-588)4329020-6 gnd Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation (DE-588)4125909-9 gnd Augenbewegung (DE-588)4003583-9 gnd Bildverarbeitung (DE-588)4006684-8 gnd Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Augenfolgebewegung Visuelles System Visuelle Wahrnehmung Messung Visuelle Aufmerksamkeit Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation Augenbewegung Bildverarbeitung Forschungsmethode |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024461162&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024461162&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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