The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics
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| 100 | 1 | |a Saha, Kshudiram |d 1918- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)135903114 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The earth's atmosphere |b its physics and dynamics |c Kshudiram Saha |
| 264 | 1 | |a Berlin [u.a.] |b Springer |c 2008 | |
| 300 | |a XXI, 367 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachdrucke | ||
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Dynamik |0 (DE-588)4013384-9 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Atmosphäre |0 (DE-588)4003397-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Physik |0 (DE-588)4045956-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
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| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Dynamik |0 (DE-588)4013384-9 |D s |
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| 689 | 1 | 1 | |a Physik |0 (DE-588)4045956-1 |D s |
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| adam_text | Contents
Part I Physics of the Earth s Atmosphere
1
The Sun and the Earth
-
The Solar System and the Earth s
Gravitation
.................................................... 3
1.1
Introduction
.............................................. 3
1.2
Earth s Gravitational Force
-
Gravity
......................... 4
1.3
Geopotential Surfaces
..................................... 6
1.4
Motion in the Earth s Gravitational Field
-
The Law of Central
Forces
................................................... 6
2
The Earth s Atmosphere
-
Its Origin, Composition and Properties
.. 9
2.1
Introduction: Origin of the Earth s Atmosphere
................ 9
2.2
Composition of the Atmosphere
............................. 10
2.3
Properties and Variables of the Atmosphere
................... 12
2.3.1
Pressure
......................................... 12.
2.3.2
Temperature
...................................... 15
2.3.3
Density
.......................................... 21
2.3.4
Other Variables of the Atmosphere
................... 22
2.3.5
Observing the Atmosphere
.......................... 22
2.4
Gas Laws
-
Equations of State
.............................. 23
2.4.1
The Equation of State
-
General
..................... 23
2.4.2
The Equation of State of an Ideal Gas
................. 24
2.4.3
The Equation of State of a Mixture of Gases
........... 26
2.4.4
The Equation of State of a Real Gas
.................. 26
3
Heat and Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere
.................... 27
3.1
Introduction. The Nature of Heat and Kinetic Theory
........... 27
3.2
The First Law of Thermodynamics
........................... 27
3.3
Specific Heats of Gases
.................................... 28
3.4
Adiabatic Changes in the Atmosphere
........................ 30
3.4.1
Adiabatic Relationship Between Pressure, Temperature
and Volume
...................................... 30
3.4.2
Potential Temperature
.............................. 30
3.4.3
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate of Temperature with Height
.. 31
3.4.4
Static Stability of Dry Air
-
Buoyancy Oscillations
..... 31
3.4.5
Adiabatic Propagation of Sound Waves
............... 33
3.5
The Concept of Entropy
.................................... 33
3.6
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
........................ 36
3.6.1
Carnot Engine
.................................... 36
3.6.2
Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
...... 38
3.7
Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Systems:
Thermodynamic Potentials
................................. 40
3.7.1
Free Energy or Helmholtz Potential
.................. 40
3.7.2
Free Enthalpy, or Gibbs Potential, or Gibbs Free Energy
41
3.8
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
.......................... 41
3.9
The Atmosphere as a Heat Engine
........................... 42
Water Vapour in the Atmosphere: Thermodynamics of Moist Air
... 43
4.1
Introduction
.............................................. 43
4.2
Humidity of the Air
-
Definitions
............................ 44
4.3
Density of Moist Air
-
Virtual Temperature
................... 45
4.4
Measurement of Humidity
—
Hygrometers/Psychrometers
........ 46
4.5
Ascent of Moist Air in the Atmosphere
-
Pseudo-
Adiabatic Process
48
4.6
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate of Temperature
................ 50
4.7
Equivalent Potential Temperature
............................ 50
4.8
Variation of Saturation Vapour Pressure with Temperature
....... 51
4.8.1
The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
.................... 51
4.8.2
Melting Point of Ice
-
Variation with Pressure
.......... 53
4.9
Co-existence of the Three Phases of Water
-
the Triple Point
..... 53
4.10
Stability of Moist Air
...................................... 55
4.10.1
Thermodynamic Diagrams
.......................... 56
Physics of Cloud and Precipitation
............................... 59
5.1
Introduction
-
Historical Perspective
......................... 59
5.2
Cloud-Making in the Laboratory
-
Condensation Nuclei
......... 60
5.3
Atmospheric Nuclei
-
Cloud Formation in the Atmosphere
...... 62
5.4
Drop-Size Distribution in Clouds
............................ 64
5.5
Rate of Fall of Cloud and Rain Drops
........................ 65
5.6
Supercooled Clouds and Ice-Particles
—
Sublimation
............ 66
5.7
Clouds in the Sky: Types and Classification
................... 68
5.8
From Cloud to Rain
....................................... 68
5.8.1
Hydrodynamical Attraction
......................... 69
5.8.2
Electrical Attraction
............................... 72
5.8.3
Collision Due to Turbulence
........................ 72
5.8.4
Differences in Size of Cloud Particles
................. 73
5.8.5
Differences of Temperature Between Cloud Elements
... 73
5.8.6
The Ice-Crystal Effect
.............................. 74
5.9
Meteorological Evidence
-
Rainfall from Cold and Warm Clouds
. 75
5.9.1
Rainfall from Warm Clouds
......................... 76
5.10
Climatological Rainfall Distribution over the Globe
............. 76
Physics of Radiation
-
Fundamental Laws
........................ 79
6.1
Introduction
-
the Nature of Thermal Radiation
................ 79
6.2
Radiation and Absorption
-
Heat Exchanges
................... 79
6.2.1
Conduction
....................................... 79
6.2.2
Convection
....................................... 79
6.2.3
Radiation
........................................ 80
6.3
Properties of Radiation
..................................... 81
6.4
Laws of Radiation
-
Emission and Absorption
................. 82
6.4.1 Kirchhoff
s
Law
.................................. 82
6.4.2
Laws of Black Body and Gray Radiation
.............. 83
6.4.3
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
............................. 84
6.4.4
Wien s Displacement Law
.......................... 84
6.4.5
Planck s Law of Black Body Radiation
............... 84
6.4.6
Derivation of Wien s Law and Stefan-Boltzmann Law
from Planck s Law
................................ 85
6.5
Spectral Distribution of Radiant Energy
....................... 86
6.6
Some Practical Uses of Electromagnetic Radiation
............. 88
The Sun and its Radiation
....................................... 89
7.1
Introduction
.............................................. 89
7.2
Physical Characteristics of the Sun
........................... 90
7.3
Structure of the Sun
-
its Interior
............................ 90
7.3.1
The Core
-
Nuclear Reactions
....................... 91
7.3.2
The Radiative Layer
............................... 92
7.3.3
The Convective Layer
.............................. 93
7.4
The Photosphere
.......................................... 94
7.4.1
Sunspots
......................................... 95
7.5
The Solar Atmosphere
..................................... 95
7.5.1
The Reversing Layer
............................... 96
7.5.2
The Chromosphere
................................ 96
7.5.3
The Corona
...................................... 96
7.6
The Solar Wind
........................................... 97
7.7
The Search for Neutrinos
................................... 98
The Incoming Solar Radiation
-
Interaction with the Earth s
Atmosphere and Surface
........................................ 99
8.1
Introduction
-
the Solar Spectrum
........................... 99
8.2
Interactions with the Upper Atmosphere (Above
80
km)
.........100
8.2.1
Interaction
with the Solar Wind: Polar Auroras
and Magnetic Storms
..............................100
8.2.2
Interaction with the Solar Ultraviolet Radiation
........102
8.3
The
Mésosphère
(50-80
km Layer)
..........................102
8.4
Interaction with Ozone: the
Ozonosphère
(20-50
km)
...........102
8.4.1
Formation of Ozone
...............................103
8.4.2
Destruction of Ozone: the Ozone Hole
................103
8.4.3
Warming of the Stratosphere
........................104
8.4.4
Latitudinal and Seasonal Variation of Ozone
...........104
8.4.5
Ozone and Weather
................................105
8.5
Scattering, Reflection and Absorption of Solar Radiation
in the Atmosphere
.........................................107
8.5.1
Scattering and Reflection
...........................107
8.5.2
Atmospheric Absorption
............................107
8.6
Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation) at the Earth s Surface
.....108
8.6.1
The Solar Constant
................................108
8.6.2
The Transparency of the Atmosphere
—
Effects of
Clouds and Aerosols
...............................109
8.6.3
Distribution of Solar Radiation with Latitude
—
The
Seasonal Cycle
....................................109
8.6.4
Seasonal and Latitudinal Variations of Surface
Temperature
......................................110
8.6.5
Diurnal Variation of Radiation with Clear and Cloudy
Skies
............................................
Ill
8.7
Reflection of Solar Radiation at the Earth s Surface
-
The Albedo
.113
9
Heat Balance of the Earth s Surface
-
Upward and Downward
Transfer of Heat
...............................................115
9.1
Introduction: General Considerations
.........................115
9.2
Heat Balance on a Planet Without an Atmosphere
..............116
9.3
Heat Balance on a Planet with an Atmosphere: The Greenhouse
Effect
...................................................117
9.3.1
The Greenhouse Effect
.............................118
9.4
Vertical Transfer of Radiative Heating
-
Diurnal Temperature
Wave
....................................................119
9.5
Sensible Heat Flux
........................................120
9.5.1
Vertical Transfer of Sensible Heat into the Atmosphere
.. 120
9.6
Evaporation and Evaporative Heat Flux from a Surface
..........123
9.6.1
Bowen s Ratio
....................................124
9.6.2
Evaporative Cooling
...............................124
9.7
Exchange of Heat Between the Earth s Surface
and the Underground Soil
..................................125
9.7.1
Amplitude and Range
..............................126
9.7.2
Time Lag
........................................126
9.7.3
Velocity
.........................................127
9.7.4
Wavelength
.......................................127
9.7.5
Diurnal Wave
.....................................127
9.7.6
Annual Wave
.....................................128
9.8
Radiative Heat Flux into the Ocean
..........................129
9.8.1
General Properties of Ocean Water
...................129
9.8.2
Optical Properties of Ocean Water
-
Reflection
and Refraction
....................................131
9.8.3
Absorption and Downward Penetration of Solar
Radiation in the Ocean
.............................132
9.8.4
Vertical Distribution of Temperature in the Ocean
......133
9.9
The Thermohaline Circulation
-
Buoyancy Flux
...............134
9.10
Photosynthesis in the Ocean: Chemical and Biological Processes
. 135
10
Heat Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System
-
Heat Sources and
Sinks
.........................................................137
10.1
Introduction
-
definition of heat sources and sinks
..............137
10.2
Physical Processes Involved in Heat Balance
..................138
10.3
Simpson s Computation of Heat Budget
......................139
10.4
Heat Balance from Satellite Radiation Data
...................141
10.5
Heat Sources and Sinks from the Energy Balance Equation
......145
10.6
Computation of Atmospheric Heating from Mass Continuity
Equation
.................................................149
Part II Dynamics of the Earth s Atmosphere
-
The General Circulation
11
Winds on a Rotating Earth
-
The Dynamical Equations and the
Conservation Laws
.............................................155
11.1
Introduction
..............................................155
11.2
Forces Acting on a Parcel of Air
.............................156
11.2.1
Pressure Gradient Force
............................156
11.2.2
Gravity Force
.....................................157
11.2.3
Force of Friction or Viscosity
.......................157
11.3
Acceleration of Absolute Motion
............................158
11.4
Acceleration of Relative Motion
.............................159
11.4.1
Coriolis Force
....................................161
11.5
The Equations of Motion in a Rectangular Co-ordinate System
... 162
11.6
A System of Generalized Vertical Co-ordinates
................162
11.7
The Equations of Motion in Spherical Co-ordinate System
.......164
11.8
The Equation of Continuity
.................................167
11.9
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation
........................168
11.10
Scale Analysis and Simplification of the Equations of Motion
___169
11.10.1
The Geostrophic Approximation and the Geostrophic
Wind
............................................170
11.10.2
Scale Analysis of the Vertical Momentum Equation
.....171
12
Simplified Equations of Motion
-
Quasi-Balanced Winds
...........173
12.1
Introduction
..............................................173
12.2
The Basic Equations in Isobaric Co-ordinates
..................173
12.2.1
Horizontal Momentum Equations
....................173
12.2.2
The Continuity Equation
...........................174
12.2.3
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation
................174
12.3
Balanced Flow in Natural Co-ordinates
.......................175
12.3.1
Velocity and Acceleration in Natural Co-ordinate System
175
12.3.2
The Gradient Wind
................................176
12.3.3
The Geostrophic Wind
.............................177
12.3.4
Relationship Between the Geostrophic Wind
and the Gradient Wind
.............................178
12.3.5
Inerţial
Motion
....................................178
12.3.6
Cyclostrophic Motion
..............................179
12.4
Trajectories and Streamlines
................................180
12.5
Streamline-Isotach Analysis
................................182
12.6
Variation of Wind with Height
-
The Thermal Wind
............183
13
Circulation, Vorticity and Divergence
............................187
13.1
Definitions and Concepts
-
Circulation and Vorticity
............187
13.2
The Circulation Theorem
...................................188
13.3
Absolute and Relative Vorticity
..............................191
13.4
Vorticity and Divergence in Natural Co-ordinates
...............191
13.5
Potential Vorticity
.........................................193
13.6
The Vorticity Equation in Frictionless Adiabatic Flow
...........196
13.7
The Vorticity Equation from the Equations of Motion
...........196
13.7.1
Vorticity Equation in Cartesian Co-ordinates (x, y, z)
___196
13.7.2
The Vorticity Equation in Isobaric Co-ordinates
........198
13.8
Circulation and Vorticity in the Real Atmosphere
(In Three Dimensions)
.....................................199
13.9
Vertical Motion in the Atmosphere
...........................200
13.9.1
The kinematic Method
.............................200
13.9.2
The Adiabatic Method
.............................201
13.9.3
The Vorticity Method
..............................201
13.10
Differential Properties of a Wind Field
.......................202
13.10.1
Translation,
(uo,vo)
................................203
13.10.2
Divergence, Expansion (D)
.........................203
13.10.3
Deformation
......................................204
13.10.4
Rotation
.........................................205
13.11
Types of Wind Fields
-
Graphical Representation
..............205
14
The Boundary Layers of the Atmosphere and the Ocean
............207
14.1
Introduction
..............................................207
14.2
The Equations of Turbulent Motion in the Atmosphere
..........208
14.3
The Mixing-Length Hypothesis
-
Exchange Co-efficients
........211
14.4
The Vertical Structure of the Frictionally-Controlled Boundary
Layer
...................................................212
14.4.1
The Surface Layer
.................................212
14.4.2
The
Ekman
or Transition Layer
......................214
14.5
The Secondary Circulation
-
The Spin-Down Effect
............217
14.5.1
The Nocturnal Jet
.................................220
14.5.2
Turbulent Diffusion and Dispersion in the Atmosphere
.. 221
14.6
The Boundary Layer of the Ocean
—
Ekman
Drift
and Mass Transport
.......................................222
14.7
Ekman
Pumping and Coastal Upwelling in the Ocean
...........224
15
Waves and Oscillations in the Atmosphere and the Ocean
...........227
15.1
Introduction
..............................................227
15.2
The Simple Pendulum
.....................................228
15.3
Representation of Waves by Fourier Series
....................229
15.4
Dispersion of Waves and Group Velocity
......................230
15.5
The Perturbation Technique
.................................231
15.6
Simple Wave Types
.......................................232
15.7
Internal Gravity (or Buoyancy) Waves in the Atmosphere
........239
15.7.1
Internal Gravity (Buoyancy) Waves
-
General
Considerations
....................................240
15.7.2
Mountain Lee Waves
...............................244
15.8
Dynamics of Shallow Water Gravity Waves
...................244
15.8.1
The Adjustment Problem
-
Shallow Water Equations
in a Rotating Frame
................................245
15.8.2
The Steady-State Solution: Geostrophic Adjustment
___246
15.8.3
Energy Transformations
............................247
15.8.4
Transient Oscillations
-
Poicaré
Waves
...............250
15.8.5
Importance of the Rossby Radius of Deformation
.......251
16
Equatorial Waves and Oscillations
...............................253
16.1
Introduction
..............................................253
16.2
The Governing Equations in Log-Pressure Co-ordinate System
... 254
16.2.1
The Horizontal Momentum Equations
................254
16.2.2
The Hydrostatic Equation
...........................255
16.2.3
The Continuity Equation
...........................255
16.2.4
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation
................255
16.3
The Kelvin Wave
.........................................255
16.4
The Mixed Rossby-Gravity Wave
............................257
16.5
Observational Evidence
....................................259
16.6
The Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO)
.......................260
16.7
The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
........................262
16.8
El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO)
........................266
16.8.1
Introduction
......................................266
16.8.2
EiNiño/LaNiña
..................................266
16.8.3
Southern
Oscillation
(SO)
..........................268
16.8.4
The Walker Circulation
-
ENSO
.....................270
16.8.5
Evidence of Walker Circulation in Global Data
.........270
16.8.6
Mechanism of ENSO?
.............................271
17
Dynamical Models and Numerical Weather Prediction (N.W.P.)
.....275
17.1
Introduction
-
Historical Background
........................275
17.2
The Filtering of Sound and Gravity Waves
....................276
17.3
Quasi-Geostrophic Models
.................................278
17.4 Nondivergent
Models
......................................279
17.5
Hierarchy of Simplified Models
.............................282
17.5.1
One-Parameter Barotropic Model
....................282
17.5.2
A Two-Parameter Baroclinic Model
..................282
17.6
Primitive Equation Models
.................................284
17.6.1
PE Model in Sigma Co-ordinates
....................285
17.6.2
A Two-Level Primitive Equation Model
...............288
17.6.3
Computational Procedure
...........................289
17.7
Present Status of NWP
.....................................290
18
Dynamical Instability of Atmospheric Flows
-
Energetics and
Energy Conversions
............................................293
18.1
Introduction
..............................................293
18.2
Inerţial
Instability
.........................................294
18.3
Baroclinic Instability
......................................295
18.3.1
The Model
.......................................295
18.3.2
Special Cases of Baroclinic Instability
................297
18.3.3
The Stability Criterion
-
Neutral Curve
...............298
18.4
Vertical Motion in Baroclinically Unstable Waves
..............300
18.5
Energetics and Energy Conversions in Baroclinic Instability
.....302
18.5.1
Definitions
.......................................302
18.5.2
Energy Equations for the Two-Level Quasi-
Geostrophic Model
................................304
18.6
Barotropic Instability
......................................306
18.7
Conditional Instability of the Second Kind (CISK)
.............308
19
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
.......................311
19.1
Introduction
—
Historical Background
........................311
19.2
Zonally-Averaged Mean Temperature and Wind Fields Over the
Globe
...................................................313
19.2.1
Longitudinally-Averaged Mean Temperature and Wind
Fields in Vertical Sections
..........................313
19.2.2
Idealized Pressure and Wind Fields at Surface
Over the Globe in the Three-Cell Model
..............316
19.3
Observed Distributions of Mean Winds and Circulations Over
the Globe
................................................317
19.4
Maintenance
of the Kinetic Energy and Angular Momentum
.....319
19.4.1
The Kinetic Energy Balance of the Atmosphere
........319
19.4.2
The Angular Momentum Balance
-
Maintenance
of the Zonal Circulation
............................320
19.5
Eddy-Transports
..........................................324
19.5.1
Eddy Flux of Sensible Heat
.........................324
19.5.2
Eddy-Flux of Angular Momentum
...................324
19.5.3
Eddy-Flux of Water Vapour
.........................326
19.5.4
Vertical Eddy-Transports
...........................327
19.6
Laboratory Simulation of the General Circulation
..............327
19.7
Numerical Experiment on the General Circulation
..............331
Appendices
........................................................333
Appendix-
1
(A) Vector Analysis-Some Important Vector Relations
......333
1.1
The Concept of a Vector
....................................333
1.2
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors: Multiplication
of a Vector by a Scalar
.....................................334
1.3
Multiplication of Vectors
...................................335
1.4
Differentiation of Vectors: Application to the Theory of Space
Curves
..................................................337
1.5
Space Derivative of a Scalar Quantity. The Concept of a Gradient
Vector
...................................................338
1.6
Del Operator, V
...........................................339
1.7
Use of Del Operator in Different Co-ordinate Systems
..........340
1.7.1
Cartesian Co-ordinates (x, y, z)
......................340
1.7.2
Spherical Co-ordinates
(λ, φ,
r)
.....................340
Appendix-l(B)
Motion Under Earth s Gravitational Force
.............341
Appendix-2 Adiabatic Propagation of Sound Waves
..................342
Appendix-3 Some Selected Thermodynamic Diagrams
................343.
Appendix-4 Derivation of the Equation for Saturation Vapour Pressure
Curve Taking into Account the Temperature Dependence of the
Specific Heats (After Joos,
1967)............................344
Appendix-5 Theoretical Derivation of Kelvin s Vapour Pressure
Relation for
er/es.........................................346
Appendix-6 Values of Thermal Conductivity Constants for a Few
Materials, Drawn from Sources, Including International
Critical Tables (1927), Smithsonian Physical Tables
(1934),
Landholt-Bornstein
(1923-1936),
McAdams
(1942)
and others
348
Appendix-7 Physical Units and Dimensions
.........................349
Appendix-8 Some Useful Physical Constants and Parameters
...........350
References
.........................................................353
Author Index
......................................................359
Subject Index
......................................................363
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
Part I Physics of the Earth's Atmosphere
1
The Sun and the Earth
-
The Solar System and the Earth's
Gravitation
. 3
1.1
Introduction
. 3
1.2
Earth's Gravitational Force
-
Gravity
. 4
1.3
Geopotential Surfaces
. 6
1.4
Motion in the Earth's Gravitational Field
-
The Law of Central
Forces
. 6
2
The Earth's Atmosphere
-
Its Origin, Composition and Properties
. 9
2.1
Introduction: Origin of the Earth's Atmosphere
. 9
2.2
Composition of the Atmosphere
. 10
2.3
Properties and Variables of the Atmosphere
. 12
2.3.1
Pressure
. 12.
2.3.2
Temperature
. 15
2.3.3
Density
. 21
2.3.4
Other Variables of the Atmosphere
. 22
2.3.5
Observing the Atmosphere
. 22
2.4
Gas Laws
-
Equations of State
. 23
2.4.1
The Equation of State
-
General
. 23
2.4.2
The Equation of State of an Ideal Gas
. 24
2.4.3
The Equation of State of a Mixture of Gases
. 26
2.4.4
The Equation of State of a Real Gas
. 26
3
Heat and Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere
. 27
3.1
Introduction. The Nature of Heat and Kinetic Theory
. 27
3.2
The First Law of Thermodynamics
. 27
3.3
Specific Heats of Gases
. 28
3.4
Adiabatic Changes in the Atmosphere
. 30
3.4.1
Adiabatic Relationship Between Pressure, Temperature
and Volume
. 30
3.4.2
Potential Temperature
. 30
3.4.3
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate of Temperature with Height
. 31
3.4.4
Static Stability of Dry Air
-
Buoyancy Oscillations
. 31
3.4.5
Adiabatic Propagation of Sound Waves
. 33
3.5
The Concept of Entropy
. 33
3.6
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
. 36
3.6.1
Carnot Engine
. 36
3.6.2
Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
. 38
3.7
Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Systems:
Thermodynamic Potentials
. 40
3.7.1
Free Energy or Helmholtz Potential
. 40
3.7.2
Free Enthalpy, or Gibbs' Potential, or Gibbs Free Energy
41
3.8
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
. 41
3.9
The Atmosphere as a Heat Engine
. 42
Water Vapour in the Atmosphere: Thermodynamics of Moist Air
. 43
4.1
Introduction
. 43
4.2
Humidity of the Air
-
Definitions
. 44
4.3
Density of Moist Air
-
Virtual Temperature
. 45
4.4
Measurement of Humidity
—
Hygrometers/Psychrometers
. 46
4.5
Ascent of Moist Air in the Atmosphere
-
Pseudo-
Adiabatic Process
48
4.6
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate of Temperature
. 50
4.7
Equivalent Potential Temperature
. 50
4.8
Variation of Saturation Vapour Pressure with Temperature
. 51
4.8.1
The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
. 51
4.8.2
Melting Point of Ice
-
Variation with Pressure
. 53
4.9
Co-existence of the Three Phases of Water
-
the Triple Point
. 53
4.10
Stability of Moist Air
. 55
4.10.1
Thermodynamic Diagrams
. 56
Physics of Cloud and Precipitation
. 59
5.1
Introduction
-
Historical Perspective
. 59
5.2
Cloud-Making in the Laboratory
-
Condensation Nuclei
. 60
5.3
Atmospheric Nuclei
-
Cloud Formation in the Atmosphere
. 62
5.4
Drop-Size Distribution in Clouds
. 64
5.5
Rate of Fall of Cloud and Rain Drops
. 65
5.6
Supercooled Clouds and Ice-Particles
—
Sublimation
. 66
5.7
Clouds in the Sky: Types and Classification
. 68
5.8
From Cloud to Rain
. 68
5.8.1
Hydrodynamical Attraction
. 69
5.8.2
Electrical Attraction
. 72
5.8.3
Collision Due to Turbulence
. 72
5.8.4
Differences in Size of Cloud Particles
. 73
5.8.5
Differences of Temperature Between Cloud Elements
. 73
5.8.6
The Ice-Crystal Effect
. 74
5.9
Meteorological Evidence
-
Rainfall from Cold and Warm Clouds
. 75
5.9.1
Rainfall from Warm Clouds
. 76
5.10
Climatological Rainfall Distribution over the Globe
. 76
Physics of Radiation
-
Fundamental Laws
. 79
6.1
Introduction
-
the Nature of Thermal Radiation
. 79
6.2
Radiation and Absorption
-
Heat Exchanges
. 79
6.2.1
Conduction
. 79
6.2.2
Convection
. 79
6.2.3
Radiation
. 80
6.3
Properties of Radiation
. 81
6.4
Laws of Radiation
-
Emission and Absorption
. 82
6.4.1 Kirchhoff
's
Law
. 82
6.4.2
Laws of Black Body and Gray Radiation
. 83
6.4.3
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
. 84
6.4.4
Wien's Displacement Law
. 84
6.4.5
Planck's Law of Black Body Radiation
. 84
6.4.6
Derivation of Wien's Law and Stefan-Boltzmann Law
from Planck's Law
. 85
6.5
Spectral Distribution of Radiant Energy
. 86
6.6
Some Practical Uses of Electromagnetic Radiation
. 88
The Sun and its Radiation
. 89
7.1
Introduction
. 89
7.2
Physical Characteristics of the Sun
. 90
7.3
Structure of the Sun
-
its Interior
. 90
7.3.1
The Core
-
Nuclear Reactions
. 91
7.3.2
The Radiative Layer
. 92
7.3.3
The Convective Layer
. 93
7.4
The Photosphere
. 94
7.4.1
Sunspots
. 95
7.5
The Solar Atmosphere
. 95
7.5.1
The Reversing Layer
. 96
7.5.2
The Chromosphere
. 96
7.5.3
The Corona
. 96
7.6
The Solar Wind
. 97
7.7
The Search for Neutrinos
. 98
The Incoming Solar Radiation
-
Interaction with the Earth's
Atmosphere and Surface
. 99
8.1
Introduction
-
the Solar Spectrum
. 99
8.2
Interactions with the Upper Atmosphere (Above
80
km)
.100
8.2.1
Interaction
with the Solar Wind: Polar Auroras
and Magnetic Storms
.100
8.2.2
Interaction with the Solar Ultraviolet Radiation
.102
8.3
The
Mésosphère
(50-80
km Layer)
.102
8.4
Interaction with Ozone: the
Ozonosphère
(20-50
km)
.102
8.4.1
Formation of Ozone
.103
8.4.2
Destruction of Ozone: the Ozone Hole
.103
8.4.3
Warming of the Stratosphere
.104
8.4.4
Latitudinal and Seasonal Variation of Ozone
.104
8.4.5
Ozone and Weather
.105
8.5
Scattering, Reflection and Absorption of Solar Radiation
in the Atmosphere
.107
8.5.1
Scattering and Reflection
.107
8.5.2
Atmospheric Absorption
.107
8.6
Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation) at the Earth's Surface
.108
8.6.1
The Solar Constant
.108
8.6.2
The Transparency of the Atmosphere
—
Effects of
Clouds and Aerosols
.109
8.6.3
Distribution of Solar Radiation with Latitude
—
The
Seasonal Cycle
.109
8.6.4
Seasonal and Latitudinal Variations of Surface
Temperature
.110
8.6.5
Diurnal Variation of Radiation with Clear and Cloudy
Skies
.
Ill
8.7
Reflection of Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface
-
The Albedo
.113
9
Heat Balance of the Earth's Surface
-
Upward and Downward
Transfer of Heat
.115
9.1
Introduction: General Considerations
.115
9.2
Heat Balance on a Planet Without an Atmosphere
.116
9.3
Heat Balance on a Planet with an Atmosphere: The Greenhouse
Effect
.117
9.3.1
The Greenhouse Effect
.118
9.4
Vertical Transfer of Radiative Heating
-
Diurnal Temperature
Wave
.119
9.5
Sensible Heat Flux
.120
9.5.1
Vertical Transfer of Sensible Heat into the Atmosphere
. 120
9.6
Evaporation and Evaporative Heat Flux from a Surface
.123
9.6.1
Bowen's Ratio
.124
9.6.2
Evaporative Cooling
.124
9.7
Exchange of Heat Between the Earth's Surface
and the Underground Soil
.125
9.7.1
Amplitude and Range
.126
9.7.2
Time Lag
.126
9.7.3
Velocity
.127
9.7.4
Wavelength
.127
9.7.5
Diurnal Wave
.127
9.7.6
Annual Wave
.128
9.8
Radiative Heat Flux into the Ocean
.129
9.8.1
General Properties of Ocean Water
.129
9.8.2
Optical Properties of Ocean Water
-
Reflection
and Refraction
.131
9.8.3
Absorption and Downward Penetration of Solar
Radiation in the Ocean
.132
9.8.4
Vertical Distribution of Temperature in the Ocean
.133
9.9
The Thermohaline Circulation
-
Buoyancy Flux
.134
9.10
Photosynthesis in the Ocean: Chemical and Biological Processes
. 135
10
Heat Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System
-
Heat Sources and
Sinks
.137
10.1
Introduction
-
definition of heat sources and sinks
.137
10.2
Physical Processes Involved in Heat Balance
.138
10.3
Simpson's Computation of Heat Budget
.139
10.4
Heat Balance from Satellite Radiation Data
.141
10.5
Heat Sources and Sinks from the Energy Balance Equation
.145
10.6
Computation of Atmospheric Heating from Mass Continuity
Equation
.149
Part II Dynamics of the Earth's Atmosphere
-
The General Circulation
11
Winds on a Rotating Earth
-
The Dynamical Equations and the
Conservation Laws
.155
11.1
Introduction
.155
11.2
Forces Acting on a Parcel of Air
.156
11.2.1
Pressure Gradient Force
.156
11.2.2
Gravity Force
.157
11.2.3
Force of Friction or Viscosity
.157
11.3
Acceleration of Absolute Motion
.158
11.4
Acceleration of Relative Motion
.159
11.4.1
Coriolis Force
.161
11.5
The Equations of Motion in a Rectangular Co-ordinate System
. 162
11.6
A System of Generalized Vertical Co-ordinates
.162
11.7
The Equations of Motion in Spherical Co-ordinate System
.164
11.8
The Equation of Continuity
.167
11.9
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation
.168
11.10
Scale Analysis and Simplification of the Equations of Motion
_169
11.10.1
The Geostrophic Approximation and the Geostrophic
Wind
.170
11.10.2
Scale Analysis of the Vertical Momentum Equation
.171
12
Simplified Equations of Motion
-
Quasi-Balanced Winds
.173
12.1
Introduction
.173
12.2
The Basic Equations in Isobaric Co-ordinates
.173
12.2.1
Horizontal Momentum Equations
.173
12.2.2
The Continuity Equation
.174
12.2.3
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation
.174
12.3
Balanced Flow in Natural Co-ordinates
.175
12.3.1
Velocity and Acceleration in Natural Co-ordinate System
175
12.3.2
The Gradient Wind
.176
12.3.3
The Geostrophic Wind
.177
12.3.4
Relationship Between the Geostrophic Wind
and the Gradient Wind
.178
12.3.5
Inerţial
Motion
.178
12.3.6
Cyclostrophic Motion
.179
12.4
Trajectories and Streamlines
.180
12.5
Streamline-Isotach Analysis
.182
12.6
Variation of Wind with Height
-
The Thermal Wind
.183
13
Circulation, Vorticity and Divergence
.187
13.1
Definitions and Concepts
-
Circulation and Vorticity
.187
13.2
The Circulation Theorem
.188
13.3
Absolute and Relative Vorticity
.191
13.4
Vorticity and Divergence in Natural Co-ordinates
.191
13.5
Potential Vorticity
.193
13.6
The Vorticity Equation in Frictionless Adiabatic Flow
.196
13.7
The Vorticity Equation from the Equations of Motion
.196
13.7.1
Vorticity Equation in Cartesian Co-ordinates (x, y, z)
_196
13.7.2
The Vorticity Equation in Isobaric Co-ordinates
.198
13.8
Circulation and Vorticity in the Real Atmosphere
(In Three Dimensions)
.199
13.9
Vertical Motion in the Atmosphere
.200
13.9.1
The kinematic Method
.200
13.9.2
The Adiabatic Method
.201
13.9.3
The Vorticity Method
.201
13.10
Differential Properties of a Wind Field
.202
13.10.1
Translation,
(uo,vo)
.203
13.10.2
Divergence, Expansion (D)
.203
13.10.3
Deformation
.204
13.10.4
Rotation
.205
13.11
Types of Wind Fields
-
Graphical Representation
.205
14
The Boundary Layers of the Atmosphere and the Ocean
.207
14.1
Introduction
.207
14.2
The Equations of Turbulent Motion in the Atmosphere
.208
14.3
The Mixing-Length Hypothesis
-
Exchange Co-efficients
.211
14.4
The Vertical Structure of the Frictionally-Controlled Boundary
Layer
.212
14.4.1
The Surface Layer
.212
14.4.2
The
Ekman
or Transition Layer
.214
14.5
The Secondary Circulation
-
The Spin-Down Effect
.217
14.5.1
The Nocturnal Jet
.220
14.5.2
Turbulent Diffusion and Dispersion in the Atmosphere
. 221
14.6
The Boundary Layer of the Ocean
—
Ekman
Drift
and Mass Transport
.222
14.7
Ekman
Pumping and Coastal Upwelling in the Ocean
.224
15
Waves and Oscillations in the Atmosphere and the Ocean
.227
15.1
Introduction
.227
15.2
The Simple Pendulum
.228
15.3
Representation of Waves by Fourier Series
.229
15.4
Dispersion of Waves and Group Velocity
.230
15.5
The Perturbation Technique
.231
15.6
Simple Wave Types
.232
15.7
Internal Gravity (or Buoyancy) Waves in the Atmosphere
.239
15.7.1
Internal Gravity (Buoyancy) Waves
-
General
Considerations
.240
15.7.2
Mountain Lee Waves
.244
15.8
Dynamics of Shallow Water Gravity Waves
.244
15.8.1
The Adjustment Problem
-
Shallow Water Equations
in a Rotating Frame
.245
15.8.2
The Steady-State Solution: Geostrophic Adjustment
_246
15.8.3
Energy Transformations
.247
15.8.4
Transient Oscillations
-
Poicaré
Waves
.250
15.8.5
Importance of the Rossby Radius of Deformation
.251
16
Equatorial Waves and Oscillations
.253
16.1
Introduction
.253
16.2
The Governing Equations in Log-Pressure Co-ordinate System
. 254
16.2.1
The Horizontal Momentum Equations
.254
16.2.2
The Hydrostatic Equation
.255
16.2.3
The Continuity Equation
.255
16.2.4
The Thermodynamic Energy Equation
.255
16.3
The Kelvin Wave
.255
16.4
The Mixed Rossby-Gravity Wave
.257
16.5
Observational Evidence
.259
16.6
The Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO)
.260
16.7
The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
.262
16.8
El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO)
.266
16.8.1
Introduction
.266
16.8.2
EiNiño/LaNiña
.266
16.8.3
Southern
Oscillation
(SO)
.268
16.8.4
The Walker Circulation
-
ENSO
.270
16.8.5
Evidence of Walker Circulation in Global Data
.270
16.8.6
Mechanism of ENSO?
.271
17
Dynamical Models and Numerical Weather Prediction (N.W.P.)
.275
17.1
Introduction
-
Historical Background
.275
17.2
The Filtering of Sound and Gravity Waves
.276
17.3
Quasi-Geostrophic Models
.278
17.4 Nondivergent
Models
.279
17.5
Hierarchy of Simplified Models
.282
17.5.1
One-Parameter Barotropic Model
.282
17.5.2
A Two-Parameter Baroclinic Model
.282
17.6
Primitive Equation Models
.284
17.6.1
PE Model in Sigma Co-ordinates
.285
17.6.2
A Two-Level Primitive Equation Model
.288
17.6.3
Computational Procedure
.289
17.7
Present Status of NWP
.290
18
Dynamical Instability of Atmospheric Flows
-
Energetics and
Energy Conversions
.293
18.1
Introduction
.293
18.2
Inerţial
Instability
.294
18.3
Baroclinic Instability
.295
18.3.1
The Model
.295
18.3.2
Special Cases of Baroclinic Instability
.297
18.3.3
The Stability Criterion
-
Neutral Curve
.298
18.4
Vertical Motion in Baroclinically Unstable Waves
.300
18.5
Energetics and Energy Conversions in Baroclinic Instability
.302
18.5.1
Definitions
.302
18.5.2
Energy Equations for the Two-Level Quasi-
Geostrophic Model
.304
18.6
Barotropic Instability
.306
18.7
Conditional Instability of the Second Kind (CISK)
.308
19
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
.311
19.1
Introduction
—
Historical Background
.311
19.2
Zonally-Averaged Mean Temperature and Wind Fields Over the
Globe
.313
19.2.1
Longitudinally-Averaged Mean Temperature and Wind
Fields in Vertical Sections
.313
19.2.2
Idealized Pressure and Wind Fields at Surface
Over the Globe in the Three-Cell Model
.316
19.3
Observed Distributions of Mean Winds and Circulations Over
the Globe
.317
19.4
Maintenance
of the Kinetic Energy and Angular Momentum
.319
19.4.1
The Kinetic Energy Balance of the Atmosphere
.319
19.4.2
The Angular Momentum Balance
-
Maintenance
of the Zonal Circulation
.320
19.5
Eddy-Transports
.324
19.5.1
Eddy Flux of Sensible Heat
.324
19.5.2
Eddy-Flux of Angular Momentum
.324
19.5.3
Eddy-Flux of Water Vapour
.326
19.5.4
Vertical Eddy-Transports
.327
19.6
Laboratory Simulation of the General Circulation
.327
19.7
Numerical Experiment on the General Circulation
.331
Appendices
.333
Appendix-
1
(A) Vector Analysis-Some Important Vector Relations
.333
1.1
The Concept of a Vector
.333
1.2
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors: Multiplication
of a Vector by a Scalar
.334
1.3
Multiplication of Vectors
.335
1.4
Differentiation of Vectors: Application to the Theory of Space
Curves
.337
1.5
Space Derivative of a Scalar Quantity. The Concept of a Gradient
Vector
.338
1.6
Del Operator, V
.339
1.7
Use of Del Operator in Different Co-ordinate Systems
.340
1.7.1
Cartesian Co-ordinates (x, y, z)
.340
1.7.2
Spherical Co-ordinates
(λ, φ,
r)
.340
Appendix-l(B)
Motion Under Earth's Gravitational Force
.341
Appendix-2 Adiabatic Propagation of Sound Waves
.342
Appendix-3 Some Selected Thermodynamic Diagrams
.343.
Appendix-4 Derivation of the Equation for Saturation Vapour Pressure
Curve Taking into Account the Temperature Dependence of the
Specific Heats (After Joos,
1967).344
Appendix-5 Theoretical Derivation of Kelvin's Vapour Pressure
Relation for
er/es.346
Appendix-6 Values of Thermal Conductivity Constants for a Few
Materials, Drawn from Sources, Including 'International
Critical Tables'(1927), 'Smithsonian Physical Tables'
(1934),
'Landholt-Bornstein'
(1923-1936),
'McAdams'
(1942)
and others
348
Appendix-7 Physical Units and Dimensions
.349
Appendix-8 Some Useful Physical Constants and Parameters
.350
References
.353
Author Index
.359
Subject Index
.363 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Saha, Kshudiram 1918- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)135903114 |
| author_facet | Saha, Kshudiram 1918- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Saha, Kshudiram 1918- |
| author_variant | k s ks |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV023225173 |
| classification_rvk | RB 10429 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)244065735 (DE-599)DNB987388967 |
| dewey-full | 551.51 |
| dewey-hundreds | 500 - Natural sciences and mathematics |
| dewey-ones | 551 - Geology, hydrology, meteorology |
| dewey-raw | 551.51 |
| dewey-search | 551.51 |
| dewey-sort | 3551.51 |
| dewey-tens | 550 - Earth sciences |
| discipline | Geologie / Paläontologie Geographie |
| discipline_str_mv | Geologie / Paläontologie Geographie |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV023225173 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T20:17:40Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:13:31Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9783540784265 9783540784272 9783642097171 3540784268 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016411004 |
| oclc_num | 244065735 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-384 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-29 DE-703 DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-384 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-29 DE-703 DE-12 |
| physical | XXI, 367 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2008 |
| publishDateSearch | 2008 |
| publishDateSort | 2008 |
| publisher | Springer |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Saha, Kshudiram 1918- Verfasser (DE-588)135903114 aut The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics Kshudiram Saha Berlin [u.a.] Springer 2008 XXI, 367 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Hier auch später erschienene, unveränderte Nachdrucke Dynamik (DE-588)4013384-9 gnd rswk-swf Atmosphäre (DE-588)4003397-1 gnd rswk-swf Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd rswk-swf Atmosphäre (DE-588)4003397-1 s Dynamik (DE-588)4013384-9 s DE-604 Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 s Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016411004&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Saha, Kshudiram 1918- The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics Dynamik (DE-588)4013384-9 gnd Atmosphäre (DE-588)4003397-1 gnd Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4013384-9 (DE-588)4003397-1 (DE-588)4045956-1 |
| title | The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics |
| title_auth | The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics |
| title_exact_search | The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics |
| title_exact_search_txtP | The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics |
| title_full | The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics Kshudiram Saha |
| title_fullStr | The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics Kshudiram Saha |
| title_full_unstemmed | The earth's atmosphere its physics and dynamics Kshudiram Saha |
| title_short | The earth's atmosphere |
| title_sort | the earth s atmosphere its physics and dynamics |
| title_sub | its physics and dynamics |
| topic | Dynamik (DE-588)4013384-9 gnd Atmosphäre (DE-588)4003397-1 gnd Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Dynamik Atmosphäre Physik |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016411004&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT sahakshudiram theearthsatmosphereitsphysicsanddynamics |