Microphysical processes in clouds
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Oxford Univ. Press
1993
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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adam_text | Titel: Microphysical processes in clouds
Autor: Young, Kenneth C.
Jahr: 1993
CONTENTS
1. THE FORMATION OF CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION, 3
1.1 Introduction, 3
1.2 How air may become saturated, 3
1.2.1 Diabatic cooling, 3
1.2.2 Mixing, 4
1.2.3 Adiabatic cooling, 4
1.3 The formation of cloud particles, 6
1.4 The formation of precipitation, 7
1.4.1 The coalescence mechanism, 7
1.4.2 The ice crystal mechanism, 8
1.5 Modification of precipitation processes, 9
1.6 Classification of microphysical processes, 10
Problems, 11
References, 12
2. THE STRUCTURE OF WATER AND ICE, 13
2.1 Introduction, 13
2.2 The water molecule, 13
2.3 The structure and form of ice, 14
2.3.1 The crystal structure, 15
2.3.2 The crystal shape, 17
2.4 The structure of liquid water, 19
2.5 The water, ice, and air interfaces, 19
Problems, 21
References, 22
viii CONTENTS
3. NUCLEATION OF THE LIQUID PHASE, 23
3.1 Introduction, 23
3.2 Homogeneous condensation, 23
3.2.1 Saturation vapor pressure over a droplet, 23
3.2.2 Homogeneous nucleation rate, 31
3.3 Condensation on insoluble nuclei, 42
3.3.1 Condensation on an insoluble plane surface, 42
3.3.2 Condensation on insoluble nuclei, 46
3.4 Condensation on soluble nuclei, 48
3.4.1 Expression of the thermodynamic potential, 49
3.4.2 Raoult s law, 50
3.4.3 The equilibrium vapor pressure for solution drops, 51
3.4.4 Examination of Köhler curves, 53
3.4.5 The nature and origin of CCN, 57
Problems. 62
References, 63
4. NUCLEATION OF THE ICE PHASE, 65
4.1 Introduction, 65
4.2 Deposition nucleation, 67
4.2.1 The thermodynamic potential, 69
4.2.2 The nucleation rate, 70
4.2.3 Deposition nucleation behavior, 71
4.3 Homogeneous freezing nucleation, 71
4.3.1 The nucleation rate, 73
4.3.2 Comparison between theory and observation, 76
4.4 Immersion freezing nucleation, 78
4.4.1 The nucleation rate, 78
4.4.2 Immersion freezing nucleation behavior, 80
4.5 Contact freezing nucleation, 81
4.5.1 The nucleation probability, 82
4.5.2 Nucleus collection rates, 83
4.5.3 Evidence for contact freezing nucleation in clouds, 89
4.6 Condensation freezing nucleation, 89
4.6.1 Condensation followed by immersion freezing, 89
CONTENTS
4.6.2 Condensation followed by contact freezing, 91
4.6.3 Condensation freezing nucleation behavior, 93
4.7 Relationships between modes of ice nucleation, 95
4.8 Secondary ice production, 97
4.8.1 The Hallett-Mossop mechanism, 97
4.8.2 Evidence for secondary ice production, 98
4.9 The behavior of ice nuclei in nature, 99
4.9.1 Sources of natural ice nuclei, 99
4.9.2 The active sites concept and pre-activation, 100
4.9.3 Other sources of ice crystals in clouds, 102
4.9.4 Laboratory characterization of ice nuclei, 103
Problems, 106
References, 107
5. DIFFUSION GROWTH OF WATER DROPS, 111
5.1 Introduction, 111
5.2 The equations governing drop growth by diffusion, 111
5.2.1 The mass flux equation, 112
5.2.2 The sensible heat flux equation, 113
5.2.3 The particle wet-bulb, 114
5.2.4 The combined growth equation, 115
5.3 Competition and the meaning of infinity, 117
5.3.1 Competition between like particles, 117
5.3.2 Competition between unlike particles, 118
5.3.3 Drop spectra broadening in updrafts, 118
5.4 Factors modifying the basic flux equations, 119
5.4.1 Solution and curvature effects, 119
5.4.2 Kinetic effects, 120
5.4.3 Ventilation effects, 123
5.4.4 Non-steady state effects, 126
Problems, 127
References, 129
6. DIFFUSION GROWTH OF ICE CRYSTALS, 131
6.1 Introduction. 131
6.2 Ice crystal habits, 131
x CONTENTS
6.2.1 The growth of simple ice crystals, 132
6.2.2 The growth of complex ice crystals, 136
6.2.3 Classification of ice crystals, 139
6.3 The equations governing ice crystal growth, 139
6.3.1 The electrostatic analogy, 139
6.3.2 Shape factors for ice crystals, 144
6.3.3 Integration of the growth equation, 145
6.3.4 Comparison between theory and observations, 146
6.3.5 Ventilation effects, 149
6.3.6 Ice crystal growth in a water cloud, 150
6.3.7 Kinetic effects, 152
6.3.8 Subliming ice crystals, 152
6.4 Growth of the ice crystal lattice, 152
6.4.1 Migration of molecules on the crystal surface, 153
6.4.2 Propagation of steps on a crystal face, 154
6.4.3 Propagation of the crystal face, 155
6.4.4 The formation of blocking steps, 160
6.5 Ice crystal growth modes, 161
6.5.1 Isometric growth, 161
6.5.2 Constant aspect ratio growth, 161
6.5.3 Limited and skeletal growth, 162
6.5.4 Growth near the melting point, 163
Problems, 164
References, 165
7. GROWTH OF DROPS BY COLLECTION, 168
7.1 Introduction, 168
7.2 The collection equation, 168
7.2.1 Terminal fall velocities for water drops, 170
7.2.2 Collection efficiencies, 175
7.3 Solutions of the collection equation, 180
7.3.1 Three models for collection processes, 180
7.3.2 The pure-stochastic model, 181
7.3.3 Quasi-stochastic versus pure-stochastic models, 184
7.4 Drop breakup, 185
7.4.1 Modes of drop breakup, 186
CONTENTS
7.4.2 Drop breakup probabilities, 187
7.4.3 Fragments resulting from drop breakup, 191
Problems, 194
References, 195
8. GROWTH OF ICE PARTICLES BY COLLECTION, 197
8.1 Introduction, 197
8.2 The growth of rimed crystals and graupeln, 197
8.2.1 Nomenclature of rimed particles, 198
8.2.2 The collection equation for accreting particles, 198
8.3 The growth of hail, 207
8.3.1 Calculation of accreting ice particle temperatures, 208
8.3.2 The Schumann-Ludlam limit, 209
8.3.3 Spongy ice growth and shedding, 211
8.4 The growth of snowflakes, 212
8.4.1 Collisions between ice crystals, 212
8.4.2 The sticking probability, 213
8.4.3 Snowflake densities and fall speeds, 216
8.5 The melting of ice particles, 219
Problems, 222
References, 223
9. FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION BY
COALESCENCE, 226
9.1 Introduction, 226
9.2 The formation of a water cloud, 226
9.2.1 Activation of CCN in an updraft, 227
9.2.2 Comparison between observed and modeled drop spectra, 231
9.2.3 Effects of entrainment and mixing, 233
9.3 Initiation of the coalescence process, 235
9.3.1 A pure-stochastic model of coalescence, 236
9.3.2 Effects of condensation on the collection kernel. 238
9.3.3 Time required to produce precipitation, 240
9.4 Development of an exponential raindrop spectrum, 243
9.4.1 Mass transfer rates between drops of different sizes, 244
xii CONTENTS
9.4.2 Shaping the drop spectrum through births, deaths, and
migration, 248
9.4.3 Relating computed spectra to observations, 249
9.5 The rise of water supersaturation in updrafts, 251
9.5.1 Derivation of the steady state supersaturation, 252
9.5.2 Estimates of water supersaturations in updrafts, 254
9.5.3 Possible consequences of high water supersaturations, 256
9.6 The role of coalescence and breakup in rainshafts, 257
9.6.1 Evaporative cooling in downdrafts, 258
9.6.2 Formation of virga and scud clouds, 261
Problems, 262
References, 263
10. FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION BY THE ICE CRYSTAL
MECHANISM, 266
10.1 Introduction, 266
10.2 The glaciation process, 266
10.2.1 The thermodynamics of glaciation, 267
10.2.2 Glaciation through diffusion and accretion, 269
10.2.3 Interactions between the coalescence and ice crystal
processes, 272
10.3 Formation of precipitation in stratiform clouds, 275
10.3.1 Extra-tropical cyclones, 276
10.3.2 Orographie clouds, 280
10.3.3 The melting layer, 282
10.4 Formation of precipitation in convective clouds, 285
10.4.1 Organization of precipitating convective systems, 287
10.4.2 Characteristics of the precipitation particles, 288
10.4.3 Moisture fluxes and precipitation efficiency, 290
Problems. 291
References, 292
11. THE MICROPHYSICAL BASES FOR MODIFICATION OF
CLOUDS, 295
11.1 Introduction, 295
11.2 Physical approaches to precipitation modification, 295
CONTENTS
11.2.1 Modification of the ice crystal process. 296
11.2.2 Modification of the coalescence process, 305
11.2.3 Modification of dynamical processes. 310
11.3 Statistical approaches to precipitation modification. 312
11.3.1 Physical versus statistical approaches, 312
11.3.2 Design of experiments, 313
11.3.3 Evaluation of experiments, 314
11.4 Modification of fog, 318
11.4.1 Supercooled fog, 319
11.4.2 Warm fog, 319
11.5 Modification of orographie clouds, 324
11.5.1 Numerical modeling approach, 325
11.5.2 The Climax experiment, 328
11.5.3 The Cascade project, 330
11.5.4 Other orographie seeding projects, 332
11.6 Modification of convective clouds, 334
11.6.1 Glaciogenic seeding for microphysical effects, 334
11.6.2 Hygroscopic seeding, 337
11.6.3 Glaciogenic seeding for dynamical effects, 340
11.7 Inadvertent modification of cloud processes, 343
Problems, 344
References, 346
12. THE FORMATION AND MODIFICATION OF HAIL, 352
12.1 Introduction, 352
12.2 Structure of hailstorms. 353
12.2.1 Multi-cell thunderstorms. 353
12.2.2 Supercell thunderstorms. 355
12.3 Requirements for the growth of hail. 355
12.3.1 The embryo formation region, 356
12.3.2 The hail growth zone, 359
12.4 Hailstone selection mechanisms, 360
12.4.1 Deterministic versus stochastic selection, 361
12.4.2 Size sorting, 363
xiv CONTENTS
12.4.3 The effects of updraft tilt and width on hail production, 365
12.4.4 Embryo source region, 368
12.5 Hail suppression concepts, 372
12.5.1 Glaciation, 372
12.5.2 Beneficial competition, 374
12.5.3 Trajectory lowering, 376
12.5.4 Hail suppression projects, 378
Problems, 380
References, 381
13. CIRRIFORM CLOUDS, 383
13.1 Introduction, 383
13.2 Structure of cirriform clouds, 384
13.2.1 Cirrus uncinus, 384
13.2.2 Cirrostratus, 386
13.2.3 Thunderstorm anvils, 387
13.3 Nucleation of ice particles, 387
13.4 Radiative properties of cirriform clouds, 390
13.5 Growth and survival of cirrus particles, 391
13.5.1 Effects of radiative transfer, 391
13.5.2 Cirrus particle survival, 393
Problems, 394
References, 395
Appendix 1. Review of thermodynamics, 396
A. 1.1 Dry adiabatic processes, 396
A. 1.1.1 Equation of state for moist air, 396
A. 1.1.2 Poisson s equation and potential temperature, 397
A. 1.1.3 The dry adiabatic lapse rate, 398
A. 1.1.4 Water vapor correction to Poisson s equation, 399
A. 1.2 Phase change and latent heat, 400
A. 1.2.1 PaT diagrams for the water system, 400
A. 1.2.2 Latent heat and the Clausius-Clapeyron relation, 404
A. 1.3 Expressions of water vapor content, 406
A. 1.3.1 Mixing ratio and specific humidity, 406
A. 1.3.2 Dewpoint temperature and relative humidity, 406
A. 1.3.3 Wet-bulb temperature, 407
CONTENTS
Á. 1.4 Pseudo-adiabatic processes, 409
A. 1.4.1 Derivation of the pseudo-adiabatic equation, 409
A. 1.4.2 Pseudo-adiabatic lapse rate, 411
A.1.4.3 Equivalent temperatures, 411
Problems, 412
References, 413
Appendix 2. A brief overview of numerical models for
microphysical processes, 414
A.2.1 Particle-tracing models, 414
A.2.2 Bin models, 415
A.2.3 Spectral models, 417
A.2.4 Dimensionality of models, 417
A.2.5 Kinematic versus dynamic models, 417
References, 418
Appendix 3. Useful constants and definitions, 419
Constants, 419
Conversion factors, 419
Dimensionless numbers, 420
Index, 423
|
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dewey-raw | 551.57/6 |
dewey-search | 551.57/6 |
dewey-sort | 3551.57 16 |
dewey-tens | 550 - Earth sciences |
discipline | Geologie / Paläontologie Geographie |
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id | DE-604.BV008849037 |
illustrated | Illustrated |
indexdate | 2024-12-23T12:52:46Z |
institution | BVB |
isbn | 0195075633 |
language | English |
oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-005850914 |
oclc_num | 27938311 |
open_access_boolean | |
owner | DE-12 DE-11 DE-188 |
owner_facet | DE-12 DE-11 DE-188 |
physical | XV, 427 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
publishDate | 1993 |
publishDateSearch | 1993 |
publishDateSort | 1993 |
publisher | Oxford Univ. Press |
record_format | marc |
spellingShingle | Young, Kenneth C. 1941- Microphysical processes in clouds Física larpcal Meteorologia larpcal Nuages - Physique ram Nuvens larpcal Cloud physics Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd Wolke (DE-588)4125270-6 gnd Mikrophysik (DE-588)4169842-3 gnd |
subject_GND | (DE-588)4045956-1 (DE-588)4125270-6 (DE-588)4169842-3 |
title | Microphysical processes in clouds |
title_auth | Microphysical processes in clouds |
title_exact_search | Microphysical processes in clouds |
title_full | Microphysical processes in clouds K. C. Young |
title_fullStr | Microphysical processes in clouds K. C. Young |
title_full_unstemmed | Microphysical processes in clouds K. C. Young |
title_short | Microphysical processes in clouds |
title_sort | microphysical processes in clouds |
topic | Física larpcal Meteorologia larpcal Nuages - Physique ram Nuvens larpcal Cloud physics Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd Wolke (DE-588)4125270-6 gnd Mikrophysik (DE-588)4169842-3 gnd |
topic_facet | Física Meteorologia Nuages - Physique Nuvens Cloud physics Physik Wolke Mikrophysik |
url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=005850914&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
work_keys_str_mv | AT youngkennethc microphysicalprocessesinclouds |