Microphysical processes in clouds

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1. Verfasser: Young, Kenneth C. 1941- (VerfasserIn)
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Veröffentlicht: New York Oxford Univ. Press 1993
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adam_text Titel: Microphysical processes in clouds Autor: Young, Kenneth C. Jahr: 1993 CONTENTS 1. THE FORMATION OF CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION, 3 1.1 Introduction, 3 1.2 How air may become saturated, 3 1.2.1 Diabatic cooling, 3 1.2.2 Mixing, 4 1.2.3 Adiabatic cooling, 4 1.3 The formation of cloud particles, 6 1.4 The formation of precipitation, 7 1.4.1 The coalescence mechanism, 7 1.4.2 The ice crystal mechanism, 8 1.5 Modification of precipitation processes, 9 1.6 Classification of microphysical processes, 10 Problems, 11 References, 12 2. THE STRUCTURE OF WATER AND ICE, 13 2.1 Introduction, 13 2.2 The water molecule, 13 2.3 The structure and form of ice, 14 2.3.1 The crystal structure, 15 2.3.2 The crystal shape, 17 2.4 The structure of liquid water, 19 2.5 The water, ice, and air interfaces, 19 Problems, 21 References, 22 viii CONTENTS 3. NUCLEATION OF THE LIQUID PHASE, 23 3.1 Introduction, 23 3.2 Homogeneous condensation, 23 3.2.1 Saturation vapor pressure over a droplet, 23 3.2.2 Homogeneous nucleation rate, 31 3.3 Condensation on insoluble nuclei, 42 3.3.1 Condensation on an insoluble plane surface, 42 3.3.2 Condensation on insoluble nuclei, 46 3.4 Condensation on soluble nuclei, 48 3.4.1 Expression of the thermodynamic potential, 49 3.4.2 Raoult s law, 50 3.4.3 The equilibrium vapor pressure for solution drops, 51 3.4.4 Examination of Köhler curves, 53 3.4.5 The nature and origin of CCN, 57 Problems. 62 References, 63 4. NUCLEATION OF THE ICE PHASE, 65 4.1 Introduction, 65 4.2 Deposition nucleation, 67 4.2.1 The thermodynamic potential, 69 4.2.2 The nucleation rate, 70 4.2.3 Deposition nucleation behavior, 71 4.3 Homogeneous freezing nucleation, 71 4.3.1 The nucleation rate, 73 4.3.2 Comparison between theory and observation, 76 4.4 Immersion freezing nucleation, 78 4.4.1 The nucleation rate, 78 4.4.2 Immersion freezing nucleation behavior, 80 4.5 Contact freezing nucleation, 81 4.5.1 The nucleation probability, 82 4.5.2 Nucleus collection rates, 83 4.5.3 Evidence for contact freezing nucleation in clouds, 89 4.6 Condensation freezing nucleation, 89 4.6.1 Condensation followed by immersion freezing, 89 CONTENTS 4.6.2 Condensation followed by contact freezing, 91 4.6.3 Condensation freezing nucleation behavior, 93 4.7 Relationships between modes of ice nucleation, 95 4.8 Secondary ice production, 97 4.8.1 The Hallett-Mossop mechanism, 97 4.8.2 Evidence for secondary ice production, 98 4.9 The behavior of ice nuclei in nature, 99 4.9.1 Sources of natural ice nuclei, 99 4.9.2 The active sites concept and pre-activation, 100 4.9.3 Other sources of ice crystals in clouds, 102 4.9.4 Laboratory characterization of ice nuclei, 103 Problems, 106 References, 107 5. DIFFUSION GROWTH OF WATER DROPS, 111 5.1 Introduction, 111 5.2 The equations governing drop growth by diffusion, 111 5.2.1 The mass flux equation, 112 5.2.2 The sensible heat flux equation, 113 5.2.3 The particle wet-bulb, 114 5.2.4 The combined growth equation, 115 5.3 Competition and the meaning of infinity, 117 5.3.1 Competition between like particles, 117 5.3.2 Competition between unlike particles, 118 5.3.3 Drop spectra broadening in updrafts, 118 5.4 Factors modifying the basic flux equations, 119 5.4.1 Solution and curvature effects, 119 5.4.2 Kinetic effects, 120 5.4.3 Ventilation effects, 123 5.4.4 Non-steady state effects, 126 Problems, 127 References, 129 6. DIFFUSION GROWTH OF ICE CRYSTALS, 131 6.1 Introduction. 131 6.2 Ice crystal habits, 131 x CONTENTS 6.2.1 The growth of simple ice crystals, 132 6.2.2 The growth of complex ice crystals, 136 6.2.3 Classification of ice crystals, 139 6.3 The equations governing ice crystal growth, 139 6.3.1 The electrostatic analogy, 139 6.3.2 Shape factors for ice crystals, 144 6.3.3 Integration of the growth equation, 145 6.3.4 Comparison between theory and observations, 146 6.3.5 Ventilation effects, 149 6.3.6 Ice crystal growth in a water cloud, 150 6.3.7 Kinetic effects, 152 6.3.8 Subliming ice crystals, 152 6.4 Growth of the ice crystal lattice, 152 6.4.1 Migration of molecules on the crystal surface, 153 6.4.2 Propagation of steps on a crystal face, 154 6.4.3 Propagation of the crystal face, 155 6.4.4 The formation of blocking steps, 160 6.5 Ice crystal growth modes, 161 6.5.1 Isometric growth, 161 6.5.2 Constant aspect ratio growth, 161 6.5.3 Limited and skeletal growth, 162 6.5.4 Growth near the melting point, 163 Problems, 164 References, 165 7. GROWTH OF DROPS BY COLLECTION, 168 7.1 Introduction, 168 7.2 The collection equation, 168 7.2.1 Terminal fall velocities for water drops, 170 7.2.2 Collection efficiencies, 175 7.3 Solutions of the collection equation, 180 7.3.1 Three models for collection processes, 180 7.3.2 The pure-stochastic model, 181 7.3.3 Quasi-stochastic versus pure-stochastic models, 184 7.4 Drop breakup, 185 7.4.1 Modes of drop breakup, 186 CONTENTS 7.4.2 Drop breakup probabilities, 187 7.4.3 Fragments resulting from drop breakup, 191 Problems, 194 References, 195 8. GROWTH OF ICE PARTICLES BY COLLECTION, 197 8.1 Introduction, 197 8.2 The growth of rimed crystals and graupeln, 197 8.2.1 Nomenclature of rimed particles, 198 8.2.2 The collection equation for accreting particles, 198 8.3 The growth of hail, 207 8.3.1 Calculation of accreting ice particle temperatures, 208 8.3.2 The Schumann-Ludlam limit, 209 8.3.3 Spongy ice growth and shedding, 211 8.4 The growth of snowflakes, 212 8.4.1 Collisions between ice crystals, 212 8.4.2 The sticking probability, 213 8.4.3 Snowflake densities and fall speeds, 216 8.5 The melting of ice particles, 219 Problems, 222 References, 223 9. FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION BY COALESCENCE, 226 9.1 Introduction, 226 9.2 The formation of a water cloud, 226 9.2.1 Activation of CCN in an updraft, 227 9.2.2 Comparison between observed and modeled drop spectra, 231 9.2.3 Effects of entrainment and mixing, 233 9.3 Initiation of the coalescence process, 235 9.3.1 A pure-stochastic model of coalescence, 236 9.3.2 Effects of condensation on the collection kernel. 238 9.3.3 Time required to produce precipitation, 240 9.4 Development of an exponential raindrop spectrum, 243 9.4.1 Mass transfer rates between drops of different sizes, 244 xii CONTENTS 9.4.2 Shaping the drop spectrum through births, deaths, and migration, 248 9.4.3 Relating computed spectra to observations, 249 9.5 The rise of water supersaturation in updrafts, 251 9.5.1 Derivation of the steady state supersaturation, 252 9.5.2 Estimates of water supersaturations in updrafts, 254 9.5.3 Possible consequences of high water supersaturations, 256 9.6 The role of coalescence and breakup in rainshafts, 257 9.6.1 Evaporative cooling in downdrafts, 258 9.6.2 Formation of virga and scud clouds, 261 Problems, 262 References, 263 10. FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION BY THE ICE CRYSTAL MECHANISM, 266 10.1 Introduction, 266 10.2 The glaciation process, 266 10.2.1 The thermodynamics of glaciation, 267 10.2.2 Glaciation through diffusion and accretion, 269 10.2.3 Interactions between the coalescence and ice crystal processes, 272 10.3 Formation of precipitation in stratiform clouds, 275 10.3.1 Extra-tropical cyclones, 276 10.3.2 Orographie clouds, 280 10.3.3 The melting layer, 282 10.4 Formation of precipitation in convective clouds, 285 10.4.1 Organization of precipitating convective systems, 287 10.4.2 Characteristics of the precipitation particles, 288 10.4.3 Moisture fluxes and precipitation efficiency, 290 Problems. 291 References, 292 11. THE MICROPHYSICAL BASES FOR MODIFICATION OF CLOUDS, 295 11.1 Introduction, 295 11.2 Physical approaches to precipitation modification, 295 CONTENTS 11.2.1 Modification of the ice crystal process. 296 11.2.2 Modification of the coalescence process, 305 11.2.3 Modification of dynamical processes. 310 11.3 Statistical approaches to precipitation modification. 312 11.3.1 Physical versus statistical approaches, 312 11.3.2 Design of experiments, 313 11.3.3 Evaluation of experiments, 314 11.4 Modification of fog, 318 11.4.1 Supercooled fog, 319 11.4.2 Warm fog, 319 11.5 Modification of orographie clouds, 324 11.5.1 Numerical modeling approach, 325 11.5.2 The Climax experiment, 328 11.5.3 The Cascade project, 330 11.5.4 Other orographie seeding projects, 332 11.6 Modification of convective clouds, 334 11.6.1 Glaciogenic seeding for microphysical effects, 334 11.6.2 Hygroscopic seeding, 337 11.6.3 Glaciogenic seeding for dynamical effects, 340 11.7 Inadvertent modification of cloud processes, 343 Problems, 344 References, 346 12. THE FORMATION AND MODIFICATION OF HAIL, 352 12.1 Introduction, 352 12.2 Structure of hailstorms. 353 12.2.1 Multi-cell thunderstorms. 353 12.2.2 Supercell thunderstorms. 355 12.3 Requirements for the growth of hail. 355 12.3.1 The embryo formation region, 356 12.3.2 The hail growth zone, 359 12.4 Hailstone selection mechanisms, 360 12.4.1 Deterministic versus stochastic selection, 361 12.4.2 Size sorting, 363 xiv CONTENTS 12.4.3 The effects of updraft tilt and width on hail production, 365 12.4.4 Embryo source region, 368 12.5 Hail suppression concepts, 372 12.5.1 Glaciation, 372 12.5.2 Beneficial competition, 374 12.5.3 Trajectory lowering, 376 12.5.4 Hail suppression projects, 378 Problems, 380 References, 381 13. CIRRIFORM CLOUDS, 383 13.1 Introduction, 383 13.2 Structure of cirriform clouds, 384 13.2.1 Cirrus uncinus, 384 13.2.2 Cirrostratus, 386 13.2.3 Thunderstorm anvils, 387 13.3 Nucleation of ice particles, 387 13.4 Radiative properties of cirriform clouds, 390 13.5 Growth and survival of cirrus particles, 391 13.5.1 Effects of radiative transfer, 391 13.5.2 Cirrus particle survival, 393 Problems, 394 References, 395 Appendix 1. Review of thermodynamics, 396 A. 1.1 Dry adiabatic processes, 396 A. 1.1.1 Equation of state for moist air, 396 A. 1.1.2 Poisson s equation and potential temperature, 397 A. 1.1.3 The dry adiabatic lapse rate, 398 A. 1.1.4 Water vapor correction to Poisson s equation, 399 A. 1.2 Phase change and latent heat, 400 A. 1.2.1 PaT diagrams for the water system, 400 A. 1.2.2 Latent heat and the Clausius-Clapeyron relation, 404 A. 1.3 Expressions of water vapor content, 406 A. 1.3.1 Mixing ratio and specific humidity, 406 A. 1.3.2 Dewpoint temperature and relative humidity, 406 A. 1.3.3 Wet-bulb temperature, 407 CONTENTS Á. 1.4 Pseudo-adiabatic processes, 409 A. 1.4.1 Derivation of the pseudo-adiabatic equation, 409 A. 1.4.2 Pseudo-adiabatic lapse rate, 411 A.1.4.3 Equivalent temperatures, 411 Problems, 412 References, 413 Appendix 2. A brief overview of numerical models for microphysical processes, 414 A.2.1 Particle-tracing models, 414 A.2.2 Bin models, 415 A.2.3 Spectral models, 417 A.2.4 Dimensionality of models, 417 A.2.5 Kinematic versus dynamic models, 417 References, 418 Appendix 3. Useful constants and definitions, 419 Constants, 419 Conversion factors, 419 Dimensionless numbers, 420 Index, 423
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physical XV, 427 S. Ill., graph. Darst.
publishDate 1993
publishDateSearch 1993
publishDateSort 1993
publisher Oxford Univ. Press
record_format marc
spellingShingle Young, Kenneth C. 1941-
Microphysical processes in clouds
Física larpcal
Meteorologia larpcal
Nuages - Physique ram
Nuvens larpcal
Cloud physics
Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd
Wolke (DE-588)4125270-6 gnd
Mikrophysik (DE-588)4169842-3 gnd
subject_GND (DE-588)4045956-1
(DE-588)4125270-6
(DE-588)4169842-3
title Microphysical processes in clouds
title_auth Microphysical processes in clouds
title_exact_search Microphysical processes in clouds
title_full Microphysical processes in clouds K. C. Young
title_fullStr Microphysical processes in clouds K. C. Young
title_full_unstemmed Microphysical processes in clouds K. C. Young
title_short Microphysical processes in clouds
title_sort microphysical processes in clouds
topic Física larpcal
Meteorologia larpcal
Nuages - Physique ram
Nuvens larpcal
Cloud physics
Physik (DE-588)4045956-1 gnd
Wolke (DE-588)4125270-6 gnd
Mikrophysik (DE-588)4169842-3 gnd
topic_facet Física
Meteorologia
Nuages - Physique
Nuvens
Cloud physics
Physik
Wolke
Mikrophysik
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