Statistics for social data analysis

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Hauptverfasser: Bohrnstedt, George W. (VerfasserIn), Knoke, David (VerfasserIn)
Format: Buch
Sprache:English
Veröffentlicht: Itasca, Ill. Peacock 1988
Ausgabe:2. ed.
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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text Statistics for Social Data Analysis SECOND EDITION GEORGE W BOHRNSTEDT INDIANA UNIVERSITY DAVID KNOKE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA F E PEACOCK PUBLISHERS, INC ITASCA, ILLINOIS Abbreviated Contents Preface xv 1 The Social Research Process 1 2 Frequency Distributions 27 3 Describing Frequency Distributions 65 4 Crosstabulation 101 5 Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing 135 6 Testing for the Difference between Two Means 187 7 Testing for the Difference between Several Means 219 8 Estimating Relations between Two Continuous Variables: Bivariate Regression and Correlation 253 9 Measuring Association with Discrete Variables 305 10 The Logic of Multivariate Contingency Analysis 349 11 Multiple Regression Analysis 381 12 Causal Models and Path Analysis 431 Appendices 467 Glossary of Terms 489 List of Mathematical and Statistical Symbols 503 Answers to Problems 511 Index 547 Contents PREFACE xv 1 THE SOCIAL RESEARCH PROCESS 1 1 1 What, Exactly, Is a Theory? 3 1 2 Theoretical Propositions and Operational Hypotheses 6 1 3 Independent and Dependent Variables 8 1 4 Rejecting Hypotheses 10 1 5 Operationalization 12 1 6 Measurement 14 1 7 Statistical Tests 17 171 Descriptive statistics 17 172 Measures of association 17 173 Inference 19 1 8 Completing the Research Cycle 20 Review of Key Concepts 21 Problems 22 2 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS 27 2 1 Constructing a Frequency Distribution 27 211 Percentage frequency distributions 28 2 2 Frequency Distributions for Discrete Measures 32 221 Techniques for displaying data: Tables and bar charts 35 2 3 Frequency Distributions for Orderable Discrete Variables 39 231 Techniques for displaying data: Histograms and polygons 40 vii viii STATISTICS FOR SOCIAL DATA ANALYSIS 2 4 Frequency Distributions for Continuous Measures 43 241 Grouping data in measurement classes 44 242 Rounding 45 243 True limits and midpoints 46 2 5 Cumulative Distributions 49 2 6 Percentiles 51 2 7 Quantiles 54 2 8 Grouping Error 55 Review of Key Concepts 56 Problems 57 3 DESCRIBING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS 65 3 1 Measures of Central Tendency 66 311 Mode 66 312 Median 67 313 Mean 70 3 2 Measures of Variation 75 321 Index of diversity 75 322 Index of qualitative variation 76 323 Range 78 324 Average deviation 80 325 Variance and standard deviation 81 33Z Scores 83 3 4 Exploratory Data Analysis Methods for Displaying Continuous Data 85 3 5 The Coefficient of Relative Variation 90 Review of Key Concepts 91 Problems 92 4 CROSSTABULATION 101 4 1 Bivariate Crosstabulation 101 411 An example: Political choices and social characteristics 104 4 2 Population Inference from Samples 109 4 3 Probability and Null Hypotheses 111 431 Type I and Type II errors 113 4 4 Chi Square: A Significance Test 114 4 5 Sampling Distributions for Chi Square 118 451 Another example using chi square 123 452 Chi square as a goodness-of-fit test 124 4 6 Two Meanings of Statistical Inference 126 Review of Key Concepts 127 Problems 128 Contents ix 5 STATISTICAL INFERENCE AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING 135 5 1 Probability Distributions 135 511 Discrete probability distributions 136 512 Continuous probability distributions 138 5 2 Describing Discrete Probability Distributions 139 521 The expected value and mean of a probability distribution 139 522 The variance of a probability distribution 140 5 3 Chebycheff s Inequality 141 5 4 Normal Distributions 144 541 The alpha area 147 5 5 The Central Limit Theorem 149 551 An example: Occupational prestige 151 5 6 Sample Point Estimates and Confidence Intervals 154 5 7 Constructing Confidence Intervals around Estimators When the Standard Error Is Unknown: The / Distribution 157 571 An example using the t distribution to construct a confidence interval 161 5 8 Desirable Properties of Estimators 162 581 Lack of bias 163 582 Efficiency 164 583 Consistency 164 584 The logic of inferential statistics summarized 165 5 9 Hypothesis Testing 165 591 Statistical hypotheses 165 592 Evaluating statistical hypotheses using sample data 168 593 An example of a hypothesis test about a single mean with exact hypotheses 168 594 An example of hypothesis testing about a single mean with inexact hypotheses 173 5 10 Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests about a Single Mean 175 5 10 1 One-tailed vs two-tailed hypothesis tests 177 Review of Key Concepts 179 Problems 179 6 TESTING FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS 187 6 1 Testing for the Difference between Two Means When the Standard Error Is Known 187 611 Stating the operational hypotheses 188 612 Test procedures 190 613 Testing the hypotheses 196 6 2 Hypothesis Testing with Proportions 198 6 3 An Example of a Two-Tailed Hypothesis Test with Proportions 200 X STATISTICS FOR SOCIAL DATA ANALYSIS 6 4 Testing for the Difference between Two Means When the Standard Error Is Unknown: The t Test 201 6 5 Comparing Two Distributions with Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams and Boxplots 206 6 6 Confidence Intervals and Point Estimates for Mean Differences and Proportions 208 6 7 Reporting p Values 210 6 8 Comparing Means from the Same Population Across Time 211 Review of Key Concepts 211 Problems 212 7 TESTING FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEVERAL MEANS 219 7 1 The Logic of Analysis of Variance: An Example 219 7 2 Effects of Variables 221 7 3 The ANOVA Model 222 7 4 Sums of Squares 222 741 Sums of squares in the problem-solving example 225 7 5 Mean Squares 229 7 6 The F Distribution 232 7 7 Reporting an Analysis of Variance 233 7 8 The relationship of / to F 234 7 9 Determining the Strength of a Relationship: Eta Squared 234 7 10 Testing for Differences between Individual Treatment Means 236 7 10 1 Multiple means comparison using contrasts 237 7 10 2 Mean comparison in the problem-solving example 239 7 11 The Use of ANOVA in Nonexperimental Research 240 7 11 1 An example: Crime rate and population loss 241 Review of Key Concepts 245 Problems 245 8 ESTIMATING RELATIONS BETWEEN TWO CONTINUOUS VARIABLES: BIVARIATE REGRESSION AND CORRELATION 253 8 1 An Example Using Regression and Correlation Techniques: Municipal Scope 253 811 Descriptive statistics for municipal scope 255 8 2 Scatterplots and Regression Lines 256 8 3 Linear Regression Equations 259 831 Linear regression applied to municipal scope 262 8 4 Measures of Association: The Coefficient of Determination and the Correlation Coefficient 266 Contents xi 841 The coefficient of determination 269 842 The correlation coefficient 271 843 Correlating Z scores 272 844 The relation of regression and correlation coefficients 273 8 5 Standardized Regression, or Beta, Coefficients 274 851 Regression toward the mean 275 8 6 Significance Tests for Regression and Correlation 277 861 Testing the significance of the coefficient of determination 278 862 Testing the significance of b and a 280 863 The relationship between F and t2 283 864 Confidence intervals 284 865 Testing the significance of the correlation coefficient 284 87A Problem with an Outlier: Testing the Second Hypothesis on Municipal Scope 286 8 8 Nonlinear Regression 289 881 Testing for curvilinearity 290 8 9 Special Cases of Inference Involving Correlations 294 891 Testing the difference between two means in nonindependent populations 294 892 Testing the difference between two correlations in independent populations 296 Review of Key Concepts 297 Problems 298 9 MEASURING ASSOCIATION WITH DISCRETE VARIABLES 305 9 1 Measures of Association for Nonorderable Discrete Variables 305 911 An example: Religion and school prayer attitudes 306 912 Lambda 307 9 2 Measures of Association for Orderable Discrete Variables 309 921 An example: ERA support and sex role attitude 311 922 Gamma 313 923 Tau b 318 924 Tau c 322 925 Somers s dyx 323 926 Comparing orderable measures of association 325 9 3 The Association of Ranked Data: Spearman s Rho 326 931 An example: Female labor force participation and suicide 327 9 4 The 2X2 Table 328 941 An example: Religious intensity and prayer 329 942 Yule s Q 330 943 Phi 333 944 Odds and the odds ratio 334 xii STATISTICS FOR SOCIAL DATA ANALYSIS 945 Relation to chi-square-based measures 337 Review of Key Concepts 339 Problems 339 10 THE LOGIC OF MULTIVARIATE CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS 349 10 1 Controlling Additional Variables 350 10 1 1 Spuriousness 352 10 1 2 Explanation 353 10 1 3 Multiple causes 355 ,10 2 Controlling for a Third Variable in 2X2 Tables 355 10 21A hypothetical example: Family religiosity and teenagers sex activity 356 10 2 2 No effect of third variable 357 10 2 3 Partial effect of third variable 359 10 2 4 Complete explanation by third variable 360 10 2 5 Interaction effect of third variable 362 10 2 6 Summary of conditional effects 363 10 3 The Partial Correlation Coefficient 366 10 3 1 An example: Relationships among three variables 368 10 3 2 Testing the partial correlation for significance 370 10 4 Multivariate Contingency Analysis in Larger Tables 371 Review of Key Concepts 371 Problems 372 11 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS 381 11 1 An Example: Explaining Sexual Permissiveness 382 11 2 The Three-Variable Regression Model 386 11 2 1 Interpretation of b and bi 389 11 2 2 Standardized regression coefficients (beta weights) 390 11 2 3 The coefficient of determination in the three-variable case 392 11 2 4 Testing the significance of the coefficient of determination with two independent variables 396 11 2 5 Testing b and b^ for significance 398 11 2 6 Confidence intervals for b and 402 11 2 7 Partial correlation in the three-variable case 402 11 3 Multiple Regression with Several Independent Variables 403 11 3 1 Testing the coefficient of determination for several independent variables 405 11 3 2 Testing regression coefficients for several independent variables 405 11 3 3 An example: Examining the effects of gender on sexual permissiveness 407 Contents xiii 11 4 Dummy Variable Regression Analysis 409 11 4 1 Testing for interaction effects 413 11 4 2 An example with three dummy variables and a continuous variable 416 11 4 3 Analysis of variance with dummy variable regression 419 Review of Key Concepts 422 Problems 423 12 CAUSAL MODELS AND PATH ANALYSIS 431 12 1 Causal Assumptions 431 12 1 1 Covariation 433 12 1 2 Time order 434 12 1 3 Nonspuriousness 434 12 2 Causal Diagrams 435 12 3 Path Analysis , 439 12 3 1 An example: The drinking behavior model 440 12 3 2 Structural equations 441 12 3 3 Estimating path coefficients 442 12 3 4 Decomposing implied correlations into causal parameters 443 12 3 5 Decomposing implied correlations by tracing paths 448 12 3 6 An example using path analysis: Estimating the drinking behavior model 451 12 3 7 An example of a chain path model: School busing attitude 455 Review of Key Concepts 459 Problems 459 APPENDICES 467 A The Use of Summations 467 B Critical Values of Chi Square (table) 475 C Area under the Normal Curve (table) 477 D Student s t Distribution (table) 478 E F Distribution (table) 479 F Fisher s r-to-Z Transformation (table) 483 G SPSS* File for the 24-Nations Data Set 484 H SPSS* File for the 63-Cities Data Set 486 Glossary of Terms 489 List of Mathematical and Statistical Symbols 503 Answers to Problems 511 Index 547
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spellingShingle Bohrnstedt, George W.
Knoke, David
Statistics for social data analysis
Sozialwissenschaften
Statistik
Social sciences Statistical methods
Statistics
Soziologie (DE-588)4077624-4 gnd
Statistik (DE-588)4056995-0 gnd
Datenanalyse (DE-588)4123037-1 gnd
Empirische Sozialforschung (DE-588)4014606-6 gnd
subject_GND (DE-588)4077624-4
(DE-588)4056995-0
(DE-588)4123037-1
(DE-588)4014606-6
title Statistics for social data analysis
title_auth Statistics for social data analysis
title_exact_search Statistics for social data analysis
title_full Statistics for social data analysis George W. Bohrnstedt ; David Knoke
title_fullStr Statistics for social data analysis George W. Bohrnstedt ; David Knoke
title_full_unstemmed Statistics for social data analysis George W. Bohrnstedt ; David Knoke
title_short Statistics for social data analysis
title_sort statistics for social data analysis
topic Sozialwissenschaften
Statistik
Social sciences Statistical methods
Statistics
Soziologie (DE-588)4077624-4 gnd
Statistik (DE-588)4056995-0 gnd
Datenanalyse (DE-588)4123037-1 gnd
Empirische Sozialforschung (DE-588)4014606-6 gnd
topic_facet Sozialwissenschaften
Statistik
Social sciences Statistical methods
Statistics
Soziologie
Datenanalyse
Empirische Sozialforschung
url http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=003334145&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
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