French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a French liberal thought in the eighteenth century |b a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet |c Kingsley Martin. Ed. by J. P. Mayer |
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| adam_text | CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Introductory
—
The Religion of the French rAG*
Revolution
.....
і
1. LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY
....
I
Introductory. The Revolution the climax of a century in which a new set
of answers to fundamental questions had been gaining increasing acceptance.
Economic Liberalism, Newtonian science and representative government
triumph over feudalism, clericalism and divine monarchy. Reasons for eighteenth-
century acceptance and twentieth-century rejection of the Revolutionary creed.
Difficulty of quantitative revision.
2.
ARTICLES OF FAITH
..... 6
Analysis of the creed of
1789.
The Declaration of Rights. The temporary
harmony between natural rights and utility.
3.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE REVOLUTIONARY CREED
. .
g
The complex inheritance of these idea;. No single line of development.
Liberty and Equality not always connected. Particular meaning of such words
in their own age
:
the universal expression of particular grievances. New
application of these ideas in the sixteenth century
:
their fusion with seventeenth-
century science. Basic importance of Locke and Newton.
Result of new psychology and new physics to provide the sceptic with a
faith. Progress takes the place of Christianity.
PART ONE
THE EMERGENCE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY CREED
CHAPTER II
The Leviathan State
... .23
1. SILENCE
----
THE THEORY OF ABSOLUTISM
. . .23
The struggle for sovereignty in the seventeenth century which in England
resulted in the victory of Parliament ended in France in the absolutism of
Louis
XIV.
Louis theory of internal and external sovereignty
:
his disregard
of the French Constitution and use
oí
raison
ď
¿tat.
2.
THE RIGHTS OF ORDINARY MEN
----
THE
PROTESTANTS
AND THE EDICT
OF NANTES
.
3O
The
excesses
of Louis policy lead to party divisions in France and to the
beginning of social criticism. Firstly the revocation of the Edict of Nantes leads
to a revival of the theory of popular rights.
Bossu et
and Jurieu.
xiii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
U—
continued
PAGI
3.
SCEPTICISM AND SCIENCE—BAYLE AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES
35
Secondly Louis persecution of the Jansenists and acceptance oF the Bull
Unigénitas
causes a struggle which discredits religion and aids science. The
dangerous deductions of Cartesianism
:
Pascal s fears
:
Spinoza and Hobbes.
Bossuet defends personal Providence against both
libertins
and scientists. Fonte-
nelle and Bayle
—
the fathers of modern incredulity. Fontenelle popularizes
science, intellectual liberty and, in
ancient and modern
controversy, supports
progress against degeneration. Bayle
:
historical and critical method
:
deism,
toleration and natural religion.
4.
REFORM
----
FÉNELON,
SAINT-PIERRE,
VAUBAN
AND THE ECONOMISTS
. 54
Louis military failure and bankruptcy lead to social criticism, as his religious
policy does to scepticism. The lawyers and the discontented noblesse demand
the restoration of the ancient Constitution. Influence of
Fénelon.
The demand
for economic reform
:
Boulainvilliers,
Vauban
and Boisguillebert. Saint-Pierre
:
his projects
:
his science of government, utilitarianism and perpetual peace.
The result of Louis policy is that all the ideas of the Revolution are stated,
even though not fully or publicly.
PART TWO
THE CREED AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER III
The Failure of the
Ancien Régime .
. 66
1. THE INFLUENCE OF THE
PHILOSOPHES
. . .66
These Liberal ideas gain in the eighteenth century by the breakdown of
government. The economic and social conflict predisposes the unprivileged
to listen to the new philosophy
;
the constitutional struggle between the
King,
Parlements
and clerical factions stimulates the
revolutionary spirit
;
the doctrines are formulated by the
philosophes
and propagated amongst all
classes.
2.
THE CONFLICT OF CLASSES
----
THE REVOLT OF THE BOURGEOISIE
. 7°
The class division. Privileged r. unprivileged. Peasantry revolt against
remains of feudalism. Town workers not generally powerful. Middle class the
revolutionary one. Its grievances. The State a bankrupt creditor by
1789.
3.
THE CROWN AND THE
PARLEMENTS
----
SOVEREIGNTY AND NATURAL LAW
76
The personal failure of Louis XV. Conflict with
Parlements
brings the
populace into politics, revives the legal doctrine of fundamental law, and ends
with the complete destruction of the French Constitution, leaving no alternative
except democracy.
xiv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV
Philosophy and Propaganda
. . .90
ГЛСЖ
1. THE
PHILOSOPHES
----
THEIR UNITED PROPAGANDA
. .
9O
Laughter is released by the death of Louis
XIV.
The libertinism and veiled
criticism of the
Lettres Persanes
characteristic of philosophic movement.
Philosophes
are journalists and humanists with a common object of propaganda.
A conscious party
1
75
1
onwards. Two limitations of the
philosophes
:
censorship
to evade and salons to please.
2.
THE CENSORSHIP
----
ITS EFFECT ON THE
PHILOSOPHES
. . 95
Effect of the censorship. Damage to intellectual honesty. Devices of the
philosophes
for evasion
:
their successful struggle for freedom of publication.
3.
THE SALONS
----
THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
. . .
I03
Effect of the salons on
philosophes,
who depend on them for every form of
patronage. The demand for wit. Best work done away from salons. Influence
of the
philosophes
upon the salons
:
the literary drawing-rooms of the seventeenth
century develop into the philosophic and finally into the political
salões
of the
Revolution. The impact of Rousseau. The release of emotion and the end of
a great tradition.
PART THREE
THE CREED DEVELOPS
CHAPTER V
The Philosophy of Common Sense
. . 117
1. THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY
----
RATIONAL MAN
. . . 117
The concrete significance of the abstract terms in vogue in the eighteenth
century. Meaning of reason, nature and humanity. The philosophy they implied
involved the acceptance of a scientific metaphysic and a rational psychology.
Locke s account of human nature supported by travellers accounts of the
rational savage.
2.
DEISM AND NATURAL RELIGION
----
VOLTAIRE AND ENGLISH RATIONALISM I
23
Deism and natural religion. Voltaire popularizes English thought. Newton and
the deistic controversy. Voltaire s common-sense theology: his fear of materialism.
3.
CIVIL LIBERTY
----
NATURAL RICHTS AND THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOT
.
I32
The rights of man. Civil liberty justified by natural law and utility. Common-
sense politics of Voltaire and the Encyclopedia
:
demand for equality before
the law, not economic equality, civil liberty, not democracy. Aim
:
to persuade
enlightened despots to introduce British liberty.
xv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER V—continued
ГАСЕ
4·
ECRASEZ
ĽINFAME
—
-THE WORK OF VOLTAIRE
. . 143
Ecrasez,
l infame.
Voltaire contradicts the sceptical conclusion of
Candidi
by his work for toleration. The attack on the Church breeds doubt, which
is the historical basis for tolerance. The work of Voltaire. Popularisation of
scientific outlook.
CHAPTER VI
The British Constitution
. . .
i47
1.
l esprit des lois
. . . . -47
Montesquieu differs from the other Encyclopaedists in thinking that natural
law is difficult to apply and that a science of society must rest on deductions
from collected facts. A radical who founded the
comparative school, cham¬
pioned the feudal constitution of France and laid the foundation of Burke s
conservatism.
2.
THE COMPARATIVE METHOD OF MONTESQUIEU
. . . 53
The argument
οι
L Esprit des Lois.
Relationship between law and environment.
Example from the
Decadence of the Romans. Criticism of
L Esprit des Lois.
3·
THE SEPARATION OF POWERS
----
THE INFLUENCE OF MONTESQUIEU
.
ібї
Relationship of government to climate and geography. Comparison of types
of government. Liberty results from the
separation of powers. The aston¬
ishing effects in U.S.A. and other countries of Montesquieu s mistaken idea of
British government. The mechanical theory of the Constitution
—
checks and
balances. Montesquieu s influence on one school of revolutionaries
;
he is not
in the main stream of liberal thought.
CHAPTER
VII
Utilitarianism: The End of the Compromise
.
170
I. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE ENCYCLOPEDISTS
. . .17°
The philosophy of the Encyclopedia.
Holbach
and
Helvétius
push Voltaire s
common-sense philosophy to its logical conclusions
—
materialism, utilitarianism
and democracy.
Í.
MATERIALISM
----
LOGICAL PHYSICS
----
OIDEROT AND
HOLBACH
. .17»
Discussion at Holbach s dinners. Theories of La Mettrie, Diderot and
Holbach.
Terrifying thesis of the
Système de ¡a
Nature. Holbach s atheism
ends with the deification of Nature.
3.
THE GREATEST-HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE
----
LOGICAL ETHICS
----
HELVÉTIUS
.
I
77
Helvétius
explicit utilitarianism. His idea of a science of society contrasted
with Montesquieu s. Pleasure-pain psychology and the origin of the passions.
The problem of government is to make virtue and self-interest coincide. The
possibility of perfecting society by education and legislation.
xvi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
VII—
continued
PACE
4.
REPRESENTATIVE
GOVERNMENT
----
LOGICAL POLITICS I
84
The utilitarian argument for civil liberty. Helvetius states
the greatest-
happiness principle : it implies representative government, also pri/ate
property combined with high taxation in the interests of equality. Argument
for Federal State. Holbach s politics similar though more violent. His de¬
nunciation of all gods, priests and kings. His doctrine of natural harmony
tempered by insight into probable results
oí
laissez-faire. Prophesies exploitation
of workers at home and abroad and consequent revolution. Crude force of
pre-Benthamite utilitarianism.
CHAPTER
VIII
Democracy
. . · . . .192
1. NATURAL RIGHTS AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
. . .
IÇ2
Democracy means the direct popular government of a city-state till it is
confused with the British representative system. The British Constitution a
symbol of freedom at the Revolution, when contradictions between Rousseau
and Montesquieu are reconciled by various expedients.
2.
THE INDIVIDUALISM OF ROUSSEAU
----
THE EARLY DISCOURSES
. .
1
97
Rousseau s political theory an effort to obtain complete individual liberty in
society. His own revolt from Parisian society. The contradictions of his work
explained by his personal difficulties. Individualism of the early
Discours.
The
fall of man and a new means of grace.
3.
THE COLLECTIVISM OK ROUSSEAU
----
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT
. .
2O1
Contrat
Social. Moral v. animal freedom. Rousseau s own dual nature and
Pauline psychology. The real and actual will. Collectivist state in which
individual is forced to be free. Theory applicable only to city-state. Attack on
British system of representation.
4.
THE PRACTICAL POLITICS OF ROUSSEAU
----
FRANCE, POLAND AND CORSICA 2O8
In practice Rousseau surprisingly ready for compromise. Influence of
Montesquieu. His cautious advice to Corsica and Poland. Reasons for
Rousseau s practical conservatism.
5.
THE INTERPRETATION OF ROUSSEAU
· · · .214
Extreme variety of possible interpretations of Rousseau. Philosophic anarchy,
Socialism,
Hegelianism
and Federalism all claim his authority.
His influence on the Girondists, Jacobins, Communists, Syndicalists,
medievalists, and modern exponents of the plural state. Interpretation at the
Revolution itself
—
representative government, which he had denounced.
в
xvii
PACE
CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX
Equality and Property
.... 220
i. the demand for equality
. · . .2 20
The idea of equality
:
its various meanings. In the eighteenth century it
meant destruction of legal privilege. Basis in Locke s psychology and theory
of property.
Schools of thought re property and equality in the eighteenth-century
France were
:
(a) party of privilege
;
(¿) Liberals
;
(c) theoretical communists
;
(¿) practical revolutionaries.
2.
PRIVILEGE
----
THE SURVIVAL OF FEUDAL THEORY
. . . 223
(a) The clergy and the
Parlements
object to taxation as a part of the
destruction of the ancient Constitution. Their fight against the levelling
doctrine of the sovereign monarch. A few clerics denounce usury and urge
that wealth is a
trust.
3.
UBERAL
ECONOMICS AND NATURAL HARMONY
----
THE PHYSIOCRATS AND
THE BOURGEOISIE
..... 228
(¿) Encyclopaedists and Physiocrats attack feudalism and mercantilism.
Doctrine of natural harmony and free trade. Evident laws of economics.
The natural order implies international peace, free trade and private property.
British example of free peasantry urged just when peasant proprietorship
disappearing in England.
4.
SOCIALISM AND UTOPIA
----
MESLIER, MABLY AND MORELLY
. . 235
(f) Eighteenth-century socialism advocated by men who do not believe in
invisible hand and natural harmony, and think that luxury, springing from
avarice, is a moral evil. Some realize that, while in a community of peasant
proprietors private property and equality go together, in an industrial community
they are hard to reconcile. Protests against
capitalism. D Argenson. Rousseau s
attack on artificial inequality pushed to logical conclusion by eccentric clerics like
Meslier and
Deschamps. Morelly s
communist Utopia. Mably s attack on
avarice and self-interest as basis for a social order. Demand for organized
equality and return to simplicity.
5.
THE FOURTH ESTATE
----
REVOLUTIONARY THEORY
----
LINGUET TO
BABEUF 2J0
Many practical revolutionaries who are interested in the position of the town
labourer as well as the peasant. Demand for living wage and redistribution
of property.
Déverité,
Carra,
Gosselin, Boissel, Brissot
de Warville.
Most
remarkable is Linguet, who remains a practical conservative, though he
anticipates the class war, the theory of surplus value, the iron law of wages and
inevitable proletarian revolution.
The French Revolution destroyed privilege and gave France internal free
trade. Economic equality was refused and
Babeufs
rising was an abortive
effort to set up a communist State. The result a middle-class State.
xviii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER X
PAGE
Peace, Fraternity and Nationalism
. . 259
1. INTERNATIONAL ANARCHY IN THEORY
----
MACHIAVELLI
AND GROT1US
. 259
The problem of international peace in the eighteenth century. The theory
of international law
—
sovereign states voluntarily obeying the law of nature.
Machiavelli, Grotius
and his successors.
2.
INTERNATIONAL ANARCHY IN PRACTICE
----
THE DENUNCIATION OF WA*
IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
.
261
The seventeenth- and eighteenth-century State disregards even the moral
obligation laid down by Grotius. The
Balance of Power. The anarchy of
Europe in the eighteenth century. Montesquieu and armaments. War adminis¬
tration as seen from inside by Bernis. Voltaire s account of the origin and
conduct of war.
3.
THE IDEA OF PEACE
----
SAINT-PIERRE
----
ROUSSEAU AND KANT
. . 267
The idea of peace. Physiocrats think peace must follow free trade. Their
reliance on the despot to conform to natural harmony. Rousseau s edition of
Saint-Pierre s Perpetual Peace and his insistence that democratic revolution must
precede any kind of international government. Kant agrees peace more likely
when democracies take place of despotisms. First result of democracy in
Revolution to stimulate patriotism, increasing the number of those who have
a stake in the country and are ready to fight for it. Kant right, though, in
thinking idea of international federation an
idea of reason
which would
grow, not through .the operation of natural harmony, but through deliberate
effort.
PART FOUR
THE COMPLETION OF THE REVOLUTIONARY CREED
CHAPTER XI
Progress
...... 277
I. THE NEW RELIGION
..... 277
The new religion of progress
—
one which blends the utilitarians emphasis
on the value of terrestrial happiness with the idea of duty towards the race.
A new attitude towards time involved in the
religion of humanity. Way
cleared for it by scientific advance
:
the idea of a past Golden Age and
the Christian belief in a life hereafter both discredited. Doctrine only
complete when historical laws are worked out showing the past advance of
humanity.
Ϊ.
HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION
—
VOLTAIRE,
TURGOT
AND CONDORCKT
. 28
1
The growth of the historical idea of progress. Bacon, Pascal, Fontenelle,
Bossuet, Voltaire, Montesquieu,
Turgot, Chastellux.
Progress the result of
xix
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ILI—
continued
applying scientific knowledge. The beginning of scientific Utopias
—
Mercier,
Volney and Restif
de la Bretonne.
Condorcet s Tableau
historique
summarizes
the whole religion of democracy and progress. Reasons why the two ideas are
obviously one to him. The nine epochs of advancing knowledge, freedom and
equality.
FACI
З·
THE FUTURE
----
THE TENTH EPOCH AND THE ASCENT OF MAN
.
ίΟ,Ι
The future certainly glorious, because natural laws were now mastered and
evolution therefore conscious. No limits to the possible improvement of human
nature and of society by deliberate change of environment.
Conclusion
...... 299
Summary. The reasons for loss of faith in the religion of the French
Revolution. Its value.
Bibliographical Note
.... 307
Further Bibliography
1962 . . .311
Index
...... 313
xx
The first edition of this work, long
established as a textbook in British and
American universities, was out of print
for many years. Yet no other work
has superseded it, and there is no book
available for students which covers the
subject in one volume. This new edition
is revised and edited by
Dr
J.
P. Mayer,
editor of the monumental edition of
Tocqueville s works. Attention must be
drawn to the full, annotated biblio¬
graphy, which will be invaluable to
readers in the subject.
It is a brilliant analysis of the revolu¬
tionary creed, tracing it back to the
seventeenth century and following its
course through the minds and environ¬
ment of the leading figures, from Fon-
tenelle and Bayle ( the father of modern
incredulity
),
the Encyclopaedists, Rous¬
seau, and then to the new religion of
progress summarized in the work of
Condorcet.
Mr Martin s method is original. The
Times Literary Supplement in a review
of the first edition said, The book is a
learned investigation
. . .
but it has
qualities, besides its accuracy and reason¬
ableness, which will commend it to other
readers than the specialist. It raises the
political issue of the permanent value of
the ideals of democratic government.
...
It raises, too, a practical issue
—
are
States overthrown by material discon¬
tents or by the action of new ideas? Mr
Martin observes that weight must be
given both to the economic and to the
psychological factor, and that the real
problem is to determine the relationship
between them.
25s.
net
|
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| era_facet | Geschichte 1700-1800 |
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| geographic | Frankreich (DE-588)4018145-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Frankreich |
| id | DE-604.BV002878092 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-23T10:48:26Z |
| institution | BVB |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-001801877 |
| oclc_num | 630993517 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-384 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-20 DE-83 DE-29 DE-11 DE-188 DE-703 |
| owner_facet | DE-384 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-20 DE-83 DE-29 DE-11 DE-188 DE-703 |
| physical | XX, 316 S. |
| psigel | TUB-nveb HUB-ZB011201008 |
| publishDate | 1962 |
| publishDateSearch | 1962 |
| publishDateSort | 1962 |
| publisher | Phoenix House |
| record_format | marc |
| spellingShingle | Martin, Kingsley 1897-1969 French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet Liberalismus (DE-588)4035582-2 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4035582-2 (DE-588)4018145-5 |
| title | French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet |
| title_auth | French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet |
| title_exact_search | French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet |
| title_full | French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet Kingsley Martin. Ed. by J. P. Mayer |
| title_fullStr | French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet Kingsley Martin. Ed. by J. P. Mayer |
| title_full_unstemmed | French liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet Kingsley Martin. Ed. by J. P. Mayer |
| title_short | French liberal thought in the eighteenth century |
| title_sort | french liberal thought in the eighteenth century a study of political ideas from bayle to condorcet |
| title_sub | a study of political ideas from Bayle to Condorcet |
| topic | Liberalismus (DE-588)4035582-2 gnd |
| topic_facet | Liberalismus Frankreich |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=001801877&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=001801877&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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