Market development and consequences on end-of-life management of photovoltaic implementation in Europe

Background The 2018 European Renewables Directive sets a binding target of 32% of renewable energy generation by 2030. Free-field photovoltaic plants are characterised by significant land use and material flows. Although country-level data on installed power is available, information about the spatial distribution of PV plants is rare. When the first photovoltaic systems will reach their end-of-life on a large scale in 2035, economic, technological and ecological challenges will arise. Methods The study explores the market development of photovoltaic power in the EU countries from 2008 to 2017 by preparing statistical data and Google mapping of free-field PV plants. Different approaches to assessing the land use of free-field PV systems compared to other energy systems are investigated. A comprehensive literature review addresses key issues of PV module waste treatment, hazardous constituents and their leakage in case of module breakage as well as financial issues of decommissioning and recycling and re-use of used modules. Results Most of the European PV electrical energy is generated by approximately 17,000 widely distributed free-field plants predominantly installed in lowlands. A local in-depth study shows that roof-top plants contribute less than 5% to the total PV energy generation in an area without extensive expansion to industrial buildings. Small amounts of hazardous substances that are typically present in PV modules are unlikely to affect the environment during normal operation of the system, but the question of leakage from broken end-of-life modules is not sufficiently clarified. While in the EU, the recycling and disposal costs are covered by producer fees and expected raw material profits; the financing of the decommissioning of thousands of PV free-field plants is still an open issue. Conclusions The land use of free-field PV systems should be analysed in more detail. Concerning hazardous substances, there seems to be an emerging consensus in literature that the leaching behaviour of metals from broken PV module pieces is inadequately simulated by current waste characterisation protocols. It is recommended to pay greater attention to financing the decommissioning of free-field commercial and industrial scale PV systems.