Phage-specific diverse effects of bacterial viruses on the immune system

[...]it cannot be excluded that in the future, after phage discovery, research may shift towards phage-immune system interactions, whereas, to date, work on phage interactions with their natural target (bacteria) has prevailed. Diversity of phage action on the immune system was also confirmed by recent data showing that a filamentous Pseudomonas Pf phage inhibits TNF production and phagocytosis while Escherichia coli filamentous Fol phage does not have such effects (8). [...]our data indicate that both T4 coliphage and A5/80 Staphylococcus aureus phage significantly reduce the expression of human adenovirus genes, but synthesis of viral DNA is inhibited only by T4 coliphage (14). [...]prophages are the major contributor to bacterial inter-strain immune heterogeneity manifested as variation of adaptive T- and B-cell immune responses of human lymphocytes, in vitro, to S. aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes (15). If indeed polysialic acid is a ligand for receptors of some phages it could enable those phages to bind to immune cells as the presence of polysialic acid has also been demonstrated on human DCs, NK cells and a subpopulation of T cells (27,28). [...]it is likely that various phages may use different cellular ligands to attach to and transcytose target cells including those of the immune system.