MicroRNA-mediated conversion of human fibroblasts to neurons

Neurons from fibroblasts Three papers in this issue demonstrate the production of functional induced neuronal (iN) cells from human fibroblasts, a procedure that holds great promise for regenerative medicine. Pang et al . show that a combination of the three transcription factors Ascl1 (also known as Mash1 ), Brn2 (or Pou3f2 ) and Myt1l greatly enhances the neuronal differentiation of human embryonic stem cells. When combined with the basic helix–loop–helix transcription factor NeuroD1, these factors can also convert fetal and postnatal human fibroblasts into iN cells. Caiazzo et al . use a cocktail of three transcription factors to convert prenatal and adult mouse and human fibroblasts into functional dopaminergic neurons. The three are Mash1 , Nurr1 (or Nr4a2 ) and Lmx1a . Conversion is direct with no reversion to a progenitor cell stage, and it occurs in cells from Parkinson's disease patients as well as from healthy donors. Yoo et al . use an alternative approach. They show that microRNAs can have an instructive role in neural fate determination. Expression of miR-9/9* and miR-124 in human fibroblasts induces their conversion into functional neurons, and the process is facilitated by the addition of some neurogenic transcription factors. Neurogenic transcription factors and evolutionarily conserved signalling pathways have been found to be instrumental in the formation of neurons 1 , 2 . However, the instructive role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in neurogenesis remains unexplored. We recently discovered that miR-9* and miR-124 instruct compositional changes of SWI/SNF-like BAF chromatin-remodelling complexes, a process important for neuronal differentiation and function 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 . Nearing mitotic exit of neural progenitors, miR-9* and miR-124 repress the BAF53a subunit of the neural-progenitor (np)BAF chromatin-remodelling complex. After mitotic exit, BAF53a is replaced by BAF53b, and BAF45a by BAF45b and BAF45c, which are then incorporated into neuron-specific (n)BAF complexes essential for post-mitotic functions 4 . Because miR-9/9* and miR-124 also control multiple genes regulating neuronal differentiation and function 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , we proposed that these miRNAs might contribute to neuronal fates. Here we show that expression of miR-9/9* and miR-124 (miR-9/9*-124) in human fibroblasts induces their conversion into neurons, a process facilitated by NEUROD2 . Further addition of neurogenic transcription factors ASCL1 and MYT1L enha