The space-flight environment: the International Space Station and beyond
Spacecraft in low orbit of the earth travel at Mach 25, or about 8 km per second. These spacecraft orbit the earth once every 90 minutes. The crew controls the temperature in the crew compartment of the space shuttle and modules of the International Space Station, with an average temperature between...
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description | Spacecraft in low orbit of the earth travel at Mach 25, or about 8 km per second. These spacecraft orbit the earth once every 90 minutes. The crew controls the temperature in the crew compartment of the space shuttle and modules of the International Space Station, with an average temperature between 21 and 23°C. Much greater extremes occur outside the spacecraft. When on the sun-lit side of the earth, the temperature on the spacecraft or space station can reach over 100°C. Forty-five minutes later, during a night pass through earth's dark shadow, temperatures can plunge to -100°C.2 A high vacuum exists outside the space shuttle and the International Space Station.4 The pressure inside both spacecraft is regulated to 101.34 kPa (14.7 psi) and is equilibrated after docking and before hatch opening. NASA's suit for spacewalks (extravehicular mobility unit) is pressurized to 29.5 kPa with 100% oxygen. The Russian Orlan spacesuit is pressurized to 40 kPa. The transition from ambient pressure to vacuum during airlock depressurization causes considerable decompression stress to spacewalking astronauts. Thus, before spacewalks, astronauts perform an oxygen pre-breathe protocol that reduces the level of nitrogen in the tissues. Astronauts are trained to recognize the symptoms of decompression sickness. Treatment protocols involve repressurization, 100% oxygen therapy and, if necessary, over-pressurization of the spacesuit by use of a bends treatment adaptor. At an orbital altitude of 350 km, the International Space Station is above the earth's magnetosphere. This results in exposure of astronauts to higher fluxes of ionizing radiation. The primary radiation sources are galactic cosmic rays (energetic particles from outside our solar system), particles trapped in the earth's magnetic field (the Van Allen Belts) and solar energetic particle events (solar flares).5,6 High-energy protons and heavy ions emanate from the Sun and elsewhere in the cosmos. Even higher energy secondary particles (protons, neutrons and heavy ions) are produced when the incoming radiation strikes the spacecraft hull. |
doi_str_mv | 10.1503/cmaj.081125 |
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These spacecraft orbit the earth once every 90 minutes. The crew controls the temperature in the crew compartment of the space shuttle and modules of the International Space Station, with an average temperature between 21 and 23°C. Much greater extremes occur outside the spacecraft. When on the sun-lit side of the earth, the temperature on the spacecraft or space station can reach over 100°C. Forty-five minutes later, during a night pass through earth's dark shadow, temperatures can plunge to -100°C.2 A high vacuum exists outside the space shuttle and the International Space Station.4 The pressure inside both spacecraft is regulated to 101.34 kPa (14.7 psi) and is equilibrated after docking and before hatch opening. NASA's suit for spacewalks (extravehicular mobility unit) is pressurized to 29.5 kPa with 100% oxygen. The Russian Orlan spacesuit is pressurized to 40 kPa. The transition from ambient pressure to vacuum during airlock depressurization causes considerable decompression stress to spacewalking astronauts. Thus, before spacewalks, astronauts perform an oxygen pre-breathe protocol that reduces the level of nitrogen in the tissues. Astronauts are trained to recognize the symptoms of decompression sickness. Treatment protocols involve repressurization, 100% oxygen therapy and, if necessary, over-pressurization of the spacesuit by use of a bends treatment adaptor. At an orbital altitude of 350 km, the International Space Station is above the earth's magnetosphere. This results in exposure of astronauts to higher fluxes of ionizing radiation. The primary radiation sources are galactic cosmic rays (energetic particles from outside our solar system), particles trapped in the earth's magnetic field (the Van Allen Belts) and solar energetic particle events (solar flares).5,6 High-energy protons and heavy ions emanate from the Sun and elsewhere in the cosmos. Even higher energy secondary particles (protons, neutrons and heavy ions) are produced when the incoming radiation strikes the spacecraft hull.</description><identifier>ISSN: 0820-3946</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1488-2329</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.081125</identifier><identifier>PMID: 19487390</identifier><identifier>CODEN: CMAJAX</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>Canada: CMA Impact Inc</publisher><subject>Aerospace medicine ; Astronauts ; Design and construction ; Extravehicular Activity - physiology ; Health aspects ; Humans ; Influence ; Light ; Occupational Health ; Radiation, Ionizing ; Review ; Risk factors ; Space ; Space environment ; Space Flight ; Space ships ; Space vehicles ; Survival analysis ; Temperature ; Vacuum</subject><ispartof>Canadian Medical Association journal (CMAJ), 2009-06, Vol.180 (12), p.1216-1220</ispartof><rights>COPYRIGHT 2009 CMA Impact Inc.</rights><rights>Copyright Canadian Medical Association Jun 9, 2009</rights><rights>2009 Canadian Medical Association or its licensors 2009</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><oa>free_for_read</oa><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c609t-b06982575ba161ebafe60c3826f714e3488eb946f94fe0568e11fb63ed78ba853</citedby></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktopdf>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2691437/pdf/$$EPDF$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$H</linktopdf><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2691437/$$EHTML$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$H</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>230,314,727,780,784,864,885,27923,27924,53790,53792</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19487390$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Thirsk, Robert</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Kuipers, Andre</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Mukai, Chiaki</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Williams, David</creatorcontrib><title>The space-flight environment: the International Space Station and beyond</title><title>Canadian Medical Association journal (CMAJ)</title><addtitle>CMAJ</addtitle><description>Spacecraft in low orbit of the earth travel at Mach 25, or about 8 km per second. These spacecraft orbit the earth once every 90 minutes. The crew controls the temperature in the crew compartment of the space shuttle and modules of the International Space Station, with an average temperature between 21 and 23°C. Much greater extremes occur outside the spacecraft. When on the sun-lit side of the earth, the temperature on the spacecraft or space station can reach over 100°C. Forty-five minutes later, during a night pass through earth's dark shadow, temperatures can plunge to -100°C.2 A high vacuum exists outside the space shuttle and the International Space Station.4 The pressure inside both spacecraft is regulated to 101.34 kPa (14.7 psi) and is equilibrated after docking and before hatch opening. NASA's suit for spacewalks (extravehicular mobility unit) is pressurized to 29.5 kPa with 100% oxygen. The Russian Orlan spacesuit is pressurized to 40 kPa. The transition from ambient pressure to vacuum during airlock depressurization causes considerable decompression stress to spacewalking astronauts. Thus, before spacewalks, astronauts perform an oxygen pre-breathe protocol that reduces the level of nitrogen in the tissues. Astronauts are trained to recognize the symptoms of decompression sickness. Treatment protocols involve repressurization, 100% oxygen therapy and, if necessary, over-pressurization of the spacesuit by use of a bends treatment adaptor. At an orbital altitude of 350 km, the International Space Station is above the earth's magnetosphere. This results in exposure of astronauts to higher fluxes of ionizing radiation. The primary radiation sources are galactic cosmic rays (energetic particles from outside our solar system), particles trapped in the earth's magnetic field (the Van Allen Belts) and solar energetic particle events (solar flares).5,6 High-energy protons and heavy ions emanate from the Sun and elsewhere in the cosmos. Even higher energy secondary particles (protons, neutrons and heavy ions) are produced when the incoming radiation strikes the spacecraft hull.</description><subject>Aerospace medicine</subject><subject>Astronauts</subject><subject>Design and construction</subject><subject>Extravehicular Activity - physiology</subject><subject>Health aspects</subject><subject>Humans</subject><subject>Influence</subject><subject>Light</subject><subject>Occupational Health</subject><subject>Radiation, Ionizing</subject><subject>Review</subject><subject>Risk factors</subject><subject>Space</subject><subject>Space environment</subject><subject>Space Flight</subject><subject>Space ships</subject><subject>Space vehicles</subject><subject>Survival analysis</subject><subject>Temperature</subject><subject>Vacuum</subject><issn>0820-3946</issn><issn>1488-2329</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2009</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>EIF</sourceid><sourceid>8G5</sourceid><sourceid>ABUWG</sourceid><sourceid>AFKRA</sourceid><sourceid>AZQEC</sourceid><sourceid>BENPR</sourceid><sourceid>CCPQU</sourceid><sourceid>DWQXO</sourceid><sourceid>GNUQQ</sourceid><sourceid>GUQSH</sourceid><sourceid>M2O</sourceid><recordid>eNqV0s9v0zAUB_AIgVg3OHFHEYdJCKX4VxybA9I0Aas0gUTH2XKSl9RVYnexM7H_fg6tWIN2ITlEiT_--invJckbjJY4R_Rj1evtEgmMSf4sWWAmREYokc-TBRIEZVQyfpKcer9F8aKkeJmcYMlEQSVaJFc3G0j9TleQNZ1pNyEFe2cGZ3uw4VMa4urKBhisDsZZ3aXryabr8Oc91bZOS7h3tn6VvGh05-H14XmW_Pr65ebyKrv-8W11eXGdVRzJkJWIS0HyIi815hhK3QBHFRWENwVmQGP1UMaKG8kaQDkXgHFTcgp1IUotcnqWfN7n7sayh7qKZQ66U7vB9Hq4V04bNV-xZqNad6cIl5jRIgacHwIGdzuCD6o3voKu0xbc6BUvKOWS4Qjf_QO3bow_ovOKICaIzIsJZXvU6g6UsY2Lh1YtWIhnOwuNiZ8vCMKMESblY-jMVztzq47R8gkU7xp6Uz2Z-n62IZoAv0OrR-_Vav3zP-z3uT0_shvQXdh4141T7_0cftjDanDeD9D8bQhGappSNU2p2k9p1G-Pe_hoD2NJHwCz695z</recordid><startdate>20090609</startdate><enddate>20090609</enddate><creator>Thirsk, Robert</creator><creator>Kuipers, Andre</creator><creator>Mukai, Chiaki</creator><creator>Williams, David</creator><general>CMA Impact Inc</general><general>CMA Impact, Inc</general><general>Canadian Medical Association</general><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>ISN</scope><scope>ISR</scope><scope>3V.</scope><scope>4T-</scope><scope>4U-</scope><scope>7RV</scope><scope>7X7</scope><scope>7XB</scope><scope>88E</scope><scope>88G</scope><scope>88I</scope><scope>8AF</scope><scope>8AO</scope><scope>8FI</scope><scope>8FJ</scope><scope>8FK</scope><scope>8FQ</scope><scope>8FV</scope><scope>8G5</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>AN0</scope><scope>ASE</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>FPQ</scope><scope>FYUFA</scope><scope>GHDGH</scope><scope>GNUQQ</scope><scope>GUQSH</scope><scope>HCIFZ</scope><scope>K6X</scope><scope>K9.</scope><scope>KB0</scope><scope>M0S</scope><scope>M0T</scope><scope>M1P</scope><scope>M2M</scope><scope>M2O</scope><scope>M2P</scope><scope>M3G</scope><scope>MBDVC</scope><scope>NAPCQ</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>PRINS</scope><scope>PSYQQ</scope><scope>Q9U</scope><scope>7X8</scope><scope>5PM</scope></search><sort><creationdate>20090609</creationdate><title>The space-flight environment: the International Space Station and beyond</title><author>Thirsk, Robert ; Kuipers, Andre ; Mukai, Chiaki ; Williams, David</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c609t-b06982575ba161ebafe60c3826f714e3488eb946f94fe0568e11fb63ed78ba853</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2009</creationdate><topic>Aerospace medicine</topic><topic>Astronauts</topic><topic>Design and construction</topic><topic>Extravehicular Activity - physiology</topic><topic>Health aspects</topic><topic>Humans</topic><topic>Influence</topic><topic>Light</topic><topic>Occupational Health</topic><topic>Radiation, Ionizing</topic><topic>Review</topic><topic>Risk factors</topic><topic>Space</topic><topic>Space environment</topic><topic>Space Flight</topic><topic>Space ships</topic><topic>Space vehicles</topic><topic>Survival analysis</topic><topic>Temperature</topic><topic>Vacuum</topic><toplevel>peer_reviewed</toplevel><toplevel>online_resources</toplevel><creatorcontrib>Thirsk, Robert</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Kuipers, Andre</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Mukai, Chiaki</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Williams, David</creatorcontrib><collection>Medline</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE (Ovid)</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>PubMed</collection><collection>CrossRef</collection><collection>Gale In Context: Canada</collection><collection>Gale In Context: Science</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Corporate)</collection><collection>Docstoc</collection><collection>University Readers</collection><collection>Nursing & Allied Health Database</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>Medical Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Psychology Database (Alumni)</collection><collection>Science Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>STEM Database</collection><collection>ProQuest Pharma Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni) (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>Canadian Business & Current Affairs Database</collection><collection>Canadian Business & Current Affairs Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Research Library (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central UK/Ireland</collection><collection>British Nursing Database</collection><collection>British Nursing Index</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Essentials</collection><collection>ProQuest Central</collection><collection>ProQuest One Community College</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Korea</collection><collection>British Nursing Index (BNI) (1985 to Present)</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Student</collection><collection>Research Library Prep</collection><collection>SciTech Premium Collection</collection><collection>British Nursing Index</collection><collection>ProQuest Health & Medical Complete (Alumni)</collection><collection>Nursing & Allied Health Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Healthcare Administration Database</collection><collection>Medical Database</collection><collection>Psychology Database</collection><collection>Research Library</collection><collection>Science Database</collection><collection>CBCA Reference & Current Events</collection><collection>Research Library (Corporate)</collection><collection>Nursing & Allied Health Premium</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic Eastern Edition (DO NOT USE)</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic UKI Edition</collection><collection>ProQuest Central China</collection><collection>ProQuest One Psychology</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Basic</collection><collection>MEDLINE - Academic</collection><collection>PubMed Central (Full Participant titles)</collection><jtitle>Canadian Medical Association journal (CMAJ)</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Thirsk, Robert</au><au>Kuipers, Andre</au><au>Mukai, Chiaki</au><au>Williams, David</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>The space-flight environment: the International Space Station and beyond</atitle><jtitle>Canadian Medical Association journal (CMAJ)</jtitle><addtitle>CMAJ</addtitle><date>2009-06-09</date><risdate>2009</risdate><volume>180</volume><issue>12</issue><spage>1216</spage><epage>1220</epage><pages>1216-1220</pages><issn>0820-3946</issn><eissn>1488-2329</eissn><coden>CMAJAX</coden><abstract>Spacecraft in low orbit of the earth travel at Mach 25, or about 8 km per second. These spacecraft orbit the earth once every 90 minutes. The crew controls the temperature in the crew compartment of the space shuttle and modules of the International Space Station, with an average temperature between 21 and 23°C. Much greater extremes occur outside the spacecraft. When on the sun-lit side of the earth, the temperature on the spacecraft or space station can reach over 100°C. Forty-five minutes later, during a night pass through earth's dark shadow, temperatures can plunge to -100°C.2 A high vacuum exists outside the space shuttle and the International Space Station.4 The pressure inside both spacecraft is regulated to 101.34 kPa (14.7 psi) and is equilibrated after docking and before hatch opening. NASA's suit for spacewalks (extravehicular mobility unit) is pressurized to 29.5 kPa with 100% oxygen. The Russian Orlan spacesuit is pressurized to 40 kPa. The transition from ambient pressure to vacuum during airlock depressurization causes considerable decompression stress to spacewalking astronauts. Thus, before spacewalks, astronauts perform an oxygen pre-breathe protocol that reduces the level of nitrogen in the tissues. Astronauts are trained to recognize the symptoms of decompression sickness. Treatment protocols involve repressurization, 100% oxygen therapy and, if necessary, over-pressurization of the spacesuit by use of a bends treatment adaptor. At an orbital altitude of 350 km, the International Space Station is above the earth's magnetosphere. This results in exposure of astronauts to higher fluxes of ionizing radiation. The primary radiation sources are galactic cosmic rays (energetic particles from outside our solar system), particles trapped in the earth's magnetic field (the Van Allen Belts) and solar energetic particle events (solar flares).5,6 High-energy protons and heavy ions emanate from the Sun and elsewhere in the cosmos. Even higher energy secondary particles (protons, neutrons and heavy ions) are produced when the incoming radiation strikes the spacecraft hull.</abstract><cop>Canada</cop><pub>CMA Impact Inc</pub><pmid>19487390</pmid><doi>10.1503/cmaj.081125</doi><tpages>5</tpages><oa>free_for_read</oa></addata></record> |
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subjects | Aerospace medicine Astronauts Design and construction Extravehicular Activity - physiology Health aspects Humans Influence Light Occupational Health Radiation, Ionizing Review Risk factors Space Space environment Space Flight Space ships Space vehicles Survival analysis Temperature Vacuum |
title | The space-flight environment: the International Space Station and beyond |
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