Predictors, sources, and health risk of exposure to neonicotinoids in Chinese school children: A biomonitoring-based study

•Eight neonicotinoids and four metabolites were determined in first morning urine.•An extensive exposure to neonicotinoids was found in Chinese children.•Several demographic factors, physical exercise, and BMI were exposure predictors.•Tap water and fresh vegetables were potential exposure sources.•A low risk was found to be posed on children's health by neonicotinoids. Recent studies have suggested an extensive exposure to neonicotinoids in human, but the information on predictors, sources, and health risk remains limited in children. To explore the predictors, sources, and health risk for exposure of Chinese school children to neonicotinoids by biomonitoring method. In 2019, 309 school children aged 7–11 years were selected from a dynamic cohort of children established in Shanghai, East China. Eight neonicotinoids and four metabolites were determined in first morning urine. After detailed information on demographic and socioeconomic indices, intake of drinking water, food consumption, and anthropometric measurements was collected, the predictors and sources of exposure to neonicotinoids were explored by binary and ordinal logistic regression models. Health risk was assessed by the hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) based on estimated daily exposure dose. Six neonicotinoids (thiamethoxam, clothianidin, imidacloprid, acetamiprid, nitenpyram, and dinotefuran) and three metabolites (N-desmethyl-thiamethoxam, N-desmethyl-clothianidin, and N-desmethyl-acetamiprid) were detected in 81.3% of urine samples. Children in nuclear family or girls had a higher detection frequency of thiamethoxam. N-desmethyl-acetamiprid was more likely to be detected in children who were older, physically active, or obese. Parents' occupation was heterogeneously associated with the detection of thiamethoxam and clothianidin. Thiamethoxam and clothianidin were more likely to be detected in children consuming more fresh vegetables in all or its specific items of cabbage, nori, and kelp. N-desmethyl-acetamiprid was more likely to be detected in children who drank more tap water. The maximum HQ and HI were 0.3522 and 0.5187, respectively, and 2.8% of children had a HI between 0.1 and 1. Predictors for the exposure of children to neonicotinoids included demographic and socioeconomic factors, physical exercise, and relative body weight. Tap water and fresh vegetables were potential sources. A low risk was posed on children's health by the neonicotinoids.