Integrative cultivation pattern, distribution, yield and potential benefit of rubber based agroforestry system in China

Rubber trees are the most widely cultivated natural rubber crops globally. Although commercial cultivation of rubber trees occurs in Hainan, Yunnan and Guangdong provinces in the tropical regions of southern China, adapting rubber plantations to global sustainable development remains a challenge. Particularly within rubber plantations, sustainability and efficiency in production and managements often suffer due to soil degradation resulting from monoculture land use and poor management practices. Rubber based agroforestry systems offer a sustainable approach to mimic natural ecosystem. This study aims to explore the patterns, distribution, yields and potential benefits of rubber agroforestry system. The results show that there were 15 types of rubber agroforestry patterns, including Rubber–Banana, Rubber–Pineapple, Rubber–Cassava, Rubber–Passionfruit, Rubber–Flower plants, Rubber–Ficus hirta, Rubber–Corn, Rubber–Edible fungus, Rubber–Alpinia oxyphylla, Rubber–coffee, Rubber–Phrynium hainanense, Rubber–Amomum villosum, Rubber–Amorphophallus, Rubber–Tea, Rubber–Pandanus amaryllifolius. These patterns are distributed across 17 counties in Hainan Province and 10 counties in Yunnan Province. The total area of rubber based agroforestry exceeds 79,520 ha, comprising 35,998 ha of young rubber agroforestry systems and 43,522 ha of mature ones. The total annual output value benefit of rubber agroforestry systems surpasses 834 million US dollars. Young agroforestry systems yield an annual output value of 269 million US dollars, while mature agroforestry systems contribute 110 billion US dollars from dry rubber and 455 million US dollars from integrative crops. Yunnan Province's economic output value for rubber agroforestry systems exceeds that of Hainan Province due to higher output values of passionfruit from young rubber plantations and Amorphophallus from mature ones. These results indicate the widespread acceptance of rubber agroforestry systems in China's rubber planting practices and their significant potential for output benefits. As environmentally friendly and sustainable production patterns, rubber agroforestry systems have the potential to enhance the sustainable livelihood capacity of smallholders and contribute to poverty alleviation efforts in China and globally. These findings enrich agroforestry systems science and provide valuable insights for optimizing industrial policies and technology transfer. [Display omitted] •Rubber agroforestry systems have