Lethal Toxicity of Thymus mastichina and Helichrysum italicum Essential Oils to Non-Target Aquatic Organisms: Tools to Screen Environmental Effects?
Essential oils (EOs) from Thymus mastichina (EO-thyme) and Helichrysum italicum (EO-curry) have wide commercial applications, but little is known about their ecotoxicity to aquatic life. We evaluated the lethal toxicity of both EOs toward standard freshwater (Daphnia. magna and Thamnocephalus platyu...
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description | Essential oils (EOs) from Thymus mastichina (EO-thyme) and Helichrysum italicum (EO-curry) have wide commercial applications, but little is known about their ecotoxicity to aquatic life. We evaluated the lethal toxicity of both EOs toward standard freshwater (Daphnia. magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus) and saltwater (Artemia sp.) species. Dimethylsulfoxide was used as a solvent after establishing a maximum safe but effective concentration of 1% (v/v). EO-curry was significantly more toxic than EO-thyme (24–48 h LC50 values of 15.93–55.80 and of 84.78–153.0 mg L−1, respectively) for all species; sensitivity ratios ranged from threefold for D. magna (48 h) and Artemia sp. (24 h) to fivefold for T. platyurus (24 h). Artemia sp. was the least sensitive, and T. platyurus was the most sensitive species, although significantly more so than D. magna only to EO-curry. The second major compound in EO-thyme, β-pinene (5%), is more toxic to aquatic life than major compound 1,8-cineole (62%), although 1,8-cineole facilitates penetration of other EO constituents into crustaceans’ epidermis. Among the main compounds of EO-curry, only α-pinene (13%) is known to be toxic to aquatic organisms. However, minor compounds present in both EOs, like p-cymene (0.3–1.1%), also cause synergistic effects by enhancing the penetration of other EO constituents. Before any of these standard tests can be recommended for the ecotoxicity characterization and environmental management of EOs, their sensitivity to a wider range of EOs, at least from closely related families, needs to be assessed. |
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We evaluated the lethal toxicity of both EOs toward standard freshwater (Daphnia. magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus) and saltwater (Artemia sp.) species. Dimethylsulfoxide was used as a solvent after establishing a maximum safe but effective concentration of 1% (v/v). EO-curry was significantly more toxic than EO-thyme (24–48 h LC50 values of 15.93–55.80 and of 84.78–153.0 mg L−1, respectively) for all species; sensitivity ratios ranged from threefold for D. magna (48 h) and Artemia sp. (24 h) to fivefold for T. platyurus (24 h). Artemia sp. was the least sensitive, and T. platyurus was the most sensitive species, although significantly more so than D. magna only to EO-curry. The second major compound in EO-thyme, β-pinene (5%), is more toxic to aquatic life than major compound 1,8-cineole (62%), although 1,8-cineole facilitates penetration of other EO constituents into crustaceans’ epidermis. Among the main compounds of EO-curry, only α-pinene (13%) is known to be toxic to aquatic organisms. However, minor compounds present in both EOs, like p-cymene (0.3–1.1%), also cause synergistic effects by enhancing the penetration of other EO constituents. Before any of these standard tests can be recommended for the ecotoxicity characterization and environmental management of EOs, their sensitivity to a wider range of EOs, at least from closely related families, needs to be assessed.</description><identifier>ISSN: 2073-4441</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 2073-4441</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.3390/w16010137</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>Basel: MDPI AG</publisher><subject>Antioxidants ; Aquatic ecosystems ; aquatic organisms ; Artemia ; cineole ; Crustaceans ; Daphnia ; dimethyl sulfoxide ; ecotoxicology ; environmental management ; Food products ; freshwater ; Helichrysum italicum ; Herbal medicine ; lethal concentration 50 ; Oils & fats ; Organisms ; p-cymene ; saline water ; solvents ; Thymus mastichina ; Toxicity ; VOCs ; Volatile organic compounds</subject><ispartof>Water (Basel), 2024-01, Vol.16 (1), p.137</ispartof><rights>2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 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We evaluated the lethal toxicity of both EOs toward standard freshwater (Daphnia. magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus) and saltwater (Artemia sp.) species. Dimethylsulfoxide was used as a solvent after establishing a maximum safe but effective concentration of 1% (v/v). EO-curry was significantly more toxic than EO-thyme (24–48 h LC50 values of 15.93–55.80 and of 84.78–153.0 mg L−1, respectively) for all species; sensitivity ratios ranged from threefold for D. magna (48 h) and Artemia sp. (24 h) to fivefold for T. platyurus (24 h). Artemia sp. was the least sensitive, and T. platyurus was the most sensitive species, although significantly more so than D. magna only to EO-curry. The second major compound in EO-thyme, β-pinene (5%), is more toxic to aquatic life than major compound 1,8-cineole (62%), although 1,8-cineole facilitates penetration of other EO constituents into crustaceans’ epidermis. Among the main compounds of EO-curry, only α-pinene (13%) is known to be toxic to aquatic organisms. However, minor compounds present in both EOs, like p-cymene (0.3–1.1%), also cause synergistic effects by enhancing the penetration of other EO constituents. Before any of these standard tests can be recommended for the ecotoxicity characterization and environmental management of EOs, their sensitivity to a wider range of EOs, at least from closely related families, needs to be assessed.</description><subject>Antioxidants</subject><subject>Aquatic ecosystems</subject><subject>aquatic organisms</subject><subject>Artemia</subject><subject>cineole</subject><subject>Crustaceans</subject><subject>Daphnia</subject><subject>dimethyl sulfoxide</subject><subject>ecotoxicology</subject><subject>environmental management</subject><subject>Food products</subject><subject>freshwater</subject><subject>Helichrysum italicum</subject><subject>Herbal medicine</subject><subject>lethal concentration 50</subject><subject>Oils & fats</subject><subject>Organisms</subject><subject>p-cymene</subject><subject>saline water</subject><subject>solvents</subject><subject>Thymus mastichina</subject><subject>Toxicity</subject><subject>VOCs</subject><subject>Volatile organic compounds</subject><issn>2073-4441</issn><issn>2073-4441</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2024</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>BENPR</sourceid><recordid>eNpdkd9KwzAUh4soOOYufIOAN3pRzZ92bb2RIdMJw11Yr8tpl2wZbbLlpOrewwc2MhExNzk_8uU7B04UnTN6LURBb97ZmDLKRHYUDTjNRJwkCTv-U59GI8QNDScp8jylg-hzLv0aWlLaD91ovydWkXK973okHaDXzVobIGCWZCbbkNwe-45oDyGEYooojddBsNAtEm_JszVxCW4lPZnseggGsnArMBo7vA1t7AF7aZyUhkzNm3bWdEESHFOlZOPx7iw6UdCiHP3cw-j1YVrez-L54vHpfjKPG56nPmacLutMsjxL1HJcMKqAp6CUomMJdQZC5HXKZZ4BrVVai1zS8EOBEgoAwvswujx4t87ueom-6jQ2sm3BSNtjJVgqOOUsFwG9-IdubO9MmK7iBeNZymmSBurqQDXOIjqpqq3THbh9xWj1vaLqd0XiC4sghY4</recordid><startdate>20240101</startdate><enddate>20240101</enddate><creator>Afonso, Sandra</creator><creator>Nogueira, Juliana</creator><creator>Cavaleiro, Carlos</creator><creator>Ferreira, Fernanda</creator><creator>Moreira-Santos, Matilde</creator><general>MDPI AG</general><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>PIMPY</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>7S9</scope><scope>L.6</scope><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5937-1127</orcidid><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2464-8464</orcidid></search><sort><creationdate>20240101</creationdate><title>Lethal Toxicity of Thymus mastichina and Helichrysum italicum Essential Oils to Non-Target Aquatic Organisms: Tools to Screen Environmental Effects?</title><author>Afonso, Sandra ; Nogueira, Juliana ; Cavaleiro, Carlos ; Ferreira, Fernanda ; Moreira-Santos, Matilde</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c285t-120db7e1874fd6910fa25afff06eab7a338b52e87a0bf5b38e020dfaf3faaa7a3</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2024</creationdate><topic>Antioxidants</topic><topic>Aquatic ecosystems</topic><topic>aquatic organisms</topic><topic>Artemia</topic><topic>cineole</topic><topic>Crustaceans</topic><topic>Daphnia</topic><topic>dimethyl sulfoxide</topic><topic>ecotoxicology</topic><topic>environmental management</topic><topic>Food products</topic><topic>freshwater</topic><topic>Helichrysum italicum</topic><topic>Herbal medicine</topic><topic>lethal concentration 50</topic><topic>Oils & fats</topic><topic>Organisms</topic><topic>p-cymene</topic><topic>saline water</topic><topic>solvents</topic><topic>Thymus mastichina</topic><topic>Toxicity</topic><topic>VOCs</topic><topic>Volatile organic compounds</topic><toplevel>peer_reviewed</toplevel><toplevel>online_resources</toplevel><creatorcontrib>Afonso, Sandra</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Nogueira, Juliana</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Cavaleiro, Carlos</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Ferreira, Fernanda</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Moreira-Santos, Matilde</creatorcontrib><collection>CrossRef</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central UK/Ireland</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Essentials</collection><collection>ProQuest Central</collection><collection>ProQuest One Community College</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Korea</collection><collection>Publicly Available Content Database</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic Eastern Edition (DO NOT USE)</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic UKI Edition</collection><collection>AGRICOLA</collection><collection>AGRICOLA - Academic</collection><jtitle>Water (Basel)</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Afonso, Sandra</au><au>Nogueira, Juliana</au><au>Cavaleiro, Carlos</au><au>Ferreira, Fernanda</au><au>Moreira-Santos, Matilde</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>Lethal Toxicity of Thymus mastichina and Helichrysum italicum Essential Oils to Non-Target Aquatic Organisms: Tools to Screen Environmental Effects?</atitle><jtitle>Water (Basel)</jtitle><date>2024-01-01</date><risdate>2024</risdate><volume>16</volume><issue>1</issue><spage>137</spage><pages>137-</pages><issn>2073-4441</issn><eissn>2073-4441</eissn><abstract>Essential oils (EOs) from Thymus mastichina (EO-thyme) and Helichrysum italicum (EO-curry) have wide commercial applications, but little is known about their ecotoxicity to aquatic life. We evaluated the lethal toxicity of both EOs toward standard freshwater (Daphnia. magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus) and saltwater (Artemia sp.) species. Dimethylsulfoxide was used as a solvent after establishing a maximum safe but effective concentration of 1% (v/v). EO-curry was significantly more toxic than EO-thyme (24–48 h LC50 values of 15.93–55.80 and of 84.78–153.0 mg L−1, respectively) for all species; sensitivity ratios ranged from threefold for D. magna (48 h) and Artemia sp. (24 h) to fivefold for T. platyurus (24 h). Artemia sp. was the least sensitive, and T. platyurus was the most sensitive species, although significantly more so than D. magna only to EO-curry. The second major compound in EO-thyme, β-pinene (5%), is more toxic to aquatic life than major compound 1,8-cineole (62%), although 1,8-cineole facilitates penetration of other EO constituents into crustaceans’ epidermis. Among the main compounds of EO-curry, only α-pinene (13%) is known to be toxic to aquatic organisms. However, minor compounds present in both EOs, like p-cymene (0.3–1.1%), also cause synergistic effects by enhancing the penetration of other EO constituents. Before any of these standard tests can be recommended for the ecotoxicity characterization and environmental management of EOs, their sensitivity to a wider range of EOs, at least from closely related families, needs to be assessed.</abstract><cop>Basel</cop><pub>MDPI AG</pub><doi>10.3390/w16010137</doi><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5937-1127</orcidid><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2464-8464</orcidid><oa>free_for_read</oa></addata></record> |
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subjects | Antioxidants Aquatic ecosystems aquatic organisms Artemia cineole Crustaceans Daphnia dimethyl sulfoxide ecotoxicology environmental management Food products freshwater Helichrysum italicum Herbal medicine lethal concentration 50 Oils & fats Organisms p-cymene saline water solvents Thymus mastichina Toxicity VOCs Volatile organic compounds |
title | Lethal Toxicity of Thymus mastichina and Helichrysum italicum Essential Oils to Non-Target Aquatic Organisms: Tools to Screen Environmental Effects? |
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