Carvacrol as a food additive: Toxicological aspects and the role of nanotechnology in enhancing its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties

[Display omitted] •CAR has antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against pathogens in food.•Nanoencapsulation is a strategy for applying CAR to foods.•Few studies regarding the toxicity of CAR (pure and NPs) are available.•Doses < 50 mg kg-1 of pure CAR and < 2 mg kg-1 of CAR- loaded NPs showed no toxicity in rats and humans, respectively. Carvacrol (CAR), a phenolic monoterpene found in essential oils, shows promise as a food additive due to its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Challenges like volatility and strong aroma necessitate innovative approaches for its use, with nanotechnology offering solutions through improved solubility and controlled release. CAR-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, presenting a novel approach for food preservation. However, limited toxicological data, particularly for nanoencapsulated forms of CAR, highlights the need for comprehensive safety assessments. While studies indicate varying effects of CAR, with high concentrations showing cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, lower doses appear safe in animal models and human trials. This review highlights the multifaceted role of CAR in food applications and emphasizes the importance of understanding its toxicological profile for well-informed use in the food industry. Furthermore, the use of nanotechnology is explored to enhance the application of CAR in foods.