Potentially toxic elements contamination in the water resources: an integrated risk assessment approach in the upper Citarum watershed area

The Citarum watershed is West Java Province’s most important water resource; hence, harmful compounds should be monitored regularly. This study assessed pollution levels along with ecological and health risks from Cd, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Hg contamination in river water, sediment, groundwater, and soil in Citarum’s upper watershed. In river water, the average amounts of Cd, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Hg were 0.002, 0.05, 0.092, 0.649, 0.022, 0.001, and 0.421 mg/L. In sediment, they were 7.4, 1175.1, 32,289.9, 37.3, 3.9, and 0.015 mg/kg. The mean concentrations of Cd, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Hg in groundwater were 0.004, 0.046, 0.567, 0.366, 0.019, 0.001, and 0.177 mg/L, and in soil, BDL, 10.2, 744.6, 50,094.1, 45.6, 5.9, and 0.015 mg/kg. The river water and groundwater were highly polluted by PTEs, with HPI values of 14,733 and 933, respectively. While PTEs pollution levels and risk in sediment and soil were low based on I-geo, CF, PLI, and M-ERM-Q values, PTEs contamination in river water may cause adverse impacts on aquatic living organisms (HQ > 1). The population doing recreational activities in river ecosystems was still safe from non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic impacts due to PTEs exposure from river water and sediment (THI