Strategies for persistent retention of macromolecules and nanoparticles in the blood circulation

The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect has been the gold standard in developing drug delivery systems for passive tumor targeting. Although the importance of this concept remains unchanged, some controversies have arisen. In this review, various strategies for tumor targeting using macromolecules and nanoparticles based on the EPR effect are discussed from the viewpoint of pharmacokinetics. Overall, such strategies seek to retain therapeutic material in the blood circulation, which is a key factor for successful targeting. Strategies using macromolecules, including antibody–drug conjugates, serum albumin-based delivery systems, PEGylated recombinant proteins, and stealth liposomes as well as nanoparticle-based strategies such as those based on lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric micelles, have been discussed. The feasibility of small extracellular vesicles, a new class of nanosized delivery carriers, is also discussed. [Display omitted]