Protective Effects of Inosine on Memory Consolidation in a Rat Model of Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Impairment: Involvement of Cholinergic Signaling, Redox Status, and Ion Pump Activities
This study investigated the effects of inosine on memory acquisition and consolidation, cholinesterases activities, redox status and Na + , K + -ATPase activity in a rat model of scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment. Adult male rats were divided into four groups: control (saline), scopolamine (1...
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| Veröffentlicht in: | Neurochemical research 2022-02, Vol.47 (2), p.446-460 |
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| creator | Teixeira, Fernanda Cardoso de Mattos, Bruna da Silveira Mello, Julia Eisenhardt de Cardoso, Juliane Spohr, Luiza Luduvico, Karina Pereira Soares, Mayara Sandrielly Pereira Carvalho, Fabiano Barbosa Gutierres, Jessie Martins Oliveira Campello Felix, Anelize de Stefanello, Francieli Moro Spanevello, Roselia Maria |
| description | This study investigated the effects of inosine on memory acquisition and consolidation, cholinesterases activities, redox status and Na
+
, K
+
-ATPase activity in a rat model of scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment. Adult male rats were divided into four groups: control (saline), scopolamine (1 mg/kg), scopolamine plus inosine (50 mg/kg), and scopolamine plus inosine (100 mg/kg). Inosine was pre-administered for 7 days, intraperitoneally. On day 8, scopolamine was administered pre (memory acquisition protocol) or post training (memory consolidation protocol) on inhibitory avoidance tasks. The animals were subjected to the step-down inhibitory avoidance task 24 hours after the training. Scopolamine induced impairment in the acquisition and consolidation phases; however, inosine was able to prevent only the impairment in memory consolidation. Also, scopolamine increased the activity of acetylcholinesterase and reduced the activity of Na
+
, K
+
-ATPase and the treatment with inosine protected against these alterations in consolidation protocol. In the animals treated with scopolamine, inosine improved the redox status by reducing the levels of reactive oxygen species and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and restoring the activity of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and catalase. Our findings suggest that inosine may offer protection against scopolamine-induced memory consolidation impairment by modulating brain redox status, cholinergic signaling and ion pump activity. This compound may provide an interesting approach in pharmacotherapy and as a prophylactic against neurodegenerative mechanisms involved in Alzheimer’s disease.
Graphic Abstract |
| doi_str_mv | 10.1007/s11064-021-03460-5 |
| format | Article |
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+
, K
+
-ATPase activity in a rat model of scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment. Adult male rats were divided into four groups: control (saline), scopolamine (1 mg/kg), scopolamine plus inosine (50 mg/kg), and scopolamine plus inosine (100 mg/kg). Inosine was pre-administered for 7 days, intraperitoneally. On day 8, scopolamine was administered pre (memory acquisition protocol) or post training (memory consolidation protocol) on inhibitory avoidance tasks. The animals were subjected to the step-down inhibitory avoidance task 24 hours after the training. Scopolamine induced impairment in the acquisition and consolidation phases; however, inosine was able to prevent only the impairment in memory consolidation. Also, scopolamine increased the activity of acetylcholinesterase and reduced the activity of Na
+
, K
+
-ATPase and the treatment with inosine protected against these alterations in consolidation protocol. In the animals treated with scopolamine, inosine improved the redox status by reducing the levels of reactive oxygen species and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and restoring the activity of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and catalase. Our findings suggest that inosine may offer protection against scopolamine-induced memory consolidation impairment by modulating brain redox status, cholinergic signaling and ion pump activity. This compound may provide an interesting approach in pharmacotherapy and as a prophylactic against neurodegenerative mechanisms involved in Alzheimer’s disease.
Graphic Abstract</description><identifier>ISSN: 0364-3190</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1573-6903</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1007/s11064-021-03460-5</identifier><identifier>PMID: 34623562</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>New York: Springer US</publisher><subject>Acetylcholinesterase ; Acetylcholinesterase - metabolism ; Alzheimer's disease ; Animal cognition ; Animals ; Antioxidants ; Avoidance ; Biochemistry ; Biomedical and Life Sciences ; Biomedicine ; Catalase ; Cell Biology ; Cholinergic Agents - adverse effects ; Cholinergics ; Cognitive ability ; Cognitive Dysfunction ; Consolidation ; Drug therapy ; Impairment ; Inosine - adverse effects ; Ion Pumps - pharmacology ; Ion Pumps - therapeutic use ; Male ; Maze Learning ; Memory ; Memory Consolidation ; Memory Disorders - chemically induced ; Memory Disorders - drug therapy ; Memory Disorders - prevention & control ; Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase ; Neurochemistry ; Neurodegenerative diseases ; Neurology ; Neurosciences ; Original Paper ; Oxidation-Reduction ; Oxidative Stress ; Rats ; Rats, Wistar ; Reactive oxygen species ; Rodents ; Scopolamine ; Scopolamine - pharmacology ; Signaling ; Superoxide dismutase ; Thiobarbituric acid ; Training</subject><ispartof>Neurochemical research, 2022-02, Vol.47 (2), p.446-460</ispartof><rights>The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021</rights><rights>2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.</rights><rights>The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021.</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c375t-14ed3840b3992155608210813371e5eb6e4bb70f185b3415c7460f7f409e771b3</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c375t-14ed3840b3992155608210813371e5eb6e4bb70f185b3415c7460f7f409e771b3</cites></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktopdf>$$Uhttps://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11064-021-03460-5$$EPDF$$P50$$Gspringer$$H</linktopdf><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11064-021-03460-5$$EHTML$$P50$$Gspringer$$H</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>315,782,786,27931,27932,41495,42564,51326</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34623562$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Teixeira, Fernanda Cardoso</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>de Mattos, Bruna da Silveira</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Mello, Julia Eisenhardt de</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Cardoso, Juliane</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Spohr, Luiza</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Luduvico, Karina Pereira</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Soares, Mayara Sandrielly Pereira</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Carvalho, Fabiano Barbosa</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Gutierres, Jessie Martins</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Oliveira Campello Felix, Anelize de</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Stefanello, Francieli Moro</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Spanevello, Roselia Maria</creatorcontrib><title>Protective Effects of Inosine on Memory Consolidation in a Rat Model of Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Impairment: Involvement of Cholinergic Signaling, Redox Status, and Ion Pump Activities</title><title>Neurochemical research</title><addtitle>Neurochem Res</addtitle><addtitle>Neurochem Res</addtitle><description>This study investigated the effects of inosine on memory acquisition and consolidation, cholinesterases activities, redox status and Na
+
, K
+
-ATPase activity in a rat model of scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment. Adult male rats were divided into four groups: control (saline), scopolamine (1 mg/kg), scopolamine plus inosine (50 mg/kg), and scopolamine plus inosine (100 mg/kg). Inosine was pre-administered for 7 days, intraperitoneally. On day 8, scopolamine was administered pre (memory acquisition protocol) or post training (memory consolidation protocol) on inhibitory avoidance tasks. The animals were subjected to the step-down inhibitory avoidance task 24 hours after the training. Scopolamine induced impairment in the acquisition and consolidation phases; however, inosine was able to prevent only the impairment in memory consolidation. Also, scopolamine increased the activity of acetylcholinesterase and reduced the activity of Na
+
, K
+
-ATPase and the treatment with inosine protected against these alterations in consolidation protocol. In the animals treated with scopolamine, inosine improved the redox status by reducing the levels of reactive oxygen species and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and restoring the activity of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and catalase. Our findings suggest that inosine may offer protection against scopolamine-induced memory consolidation impairment by modulating brain redox status, cholinergic signaling and ion pump activity. This compound may provide an interesting approach in pharmacotherapy and as a prophylactic against neurodegenerative mechanisms involved in Alzheimer’s disease.
Graphic Abstract</description><subject>Acetylcholinesterase</subject><subject>Acetylcholinesterase - metabolism</subject><subject>Alzheimer's disease</subject><subject>Animal cognition</subject><subject>Animals</subject><subject>Antioxidants</subject><subject>Avoidance</subject><subject>Biochemistry</subject><subject>Biomedical and Life Sciences</subject><subject>Biomedicine</subject><subject>Catalase</subject><subject>Cell Biology</subject><subject>Cholinergic Agents - adverse effects</subject><subject>Cholinergics</subject><subject>Cognitive ability</subject><subject>Cognitive Dysfunction</subject><subject>Consolidation</subject><subject>Drug therapy</subject><subject>Impairment</subject><subject>Inosine - adverse effects</subject><subject>Ion Pumps - pharmacology</subject><subject>Ion Pumps - therapeutic use</subject><subject>Male</subject><subject>Maze Learning</subject><subject>Memory</subject><subject>Memory Consolidation</subject><subject>Memory Disorders - chemically induced</subject><subject>Memory Disorders - drug therapy</subject><subject>Memory Disorders - prevention & control</subject><subject>Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase</subject><subject>Neurochemistry</subject><subject>Neurodegenerative diseases</subject><subject>Neurology</subject><subject>Neurosciences</subject><subject>Original Paper</subject><subject>Oxidation-Reduction</subject><subject>Oxidative Stress</subject><subject>Rats</subject><subject>Rats, Wistar</subject><subject>Reactive oxygen species</subject><subject>Rodents</subject><subject>Scopolamine</subject><subject>Scopolamine - pharmacology</subject><subject>Signaling</subject><subject>Superoxide dismutase</subject><subject>Thiobarbituric acid</subject><subject>Training</subject><issn>0364-3190</issn><issn>1573-6903</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2022</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>EIF</sourceid><sourceid>ABUWG</sourceid><sourceid>AFKRA</sourceid><sourceid>AZQEC</sourceid><sourceid>BENPR</sourceid><sourceid>CCPQU</sourceid><sourceid>DWQXO</sourceid><sourceid>GNUQQ</sourceid><recordid>eNp9kcFu1DAQhi0EokvhBTggS1w4NDCO4zjhVq0KRGpF1YVz5CST4CqxFztZ0Yfj3Zh0C0gcONnj-f5_bP-MvRTwVgDod1EIyLMEUpGAzHJI1CO2EUrLJC9BPmYbkNSWooQT9izGWwCSpeIpOyE6lSpPN-zndfAztrM9IL_oe9pF7nteOR-tQ-4dv8LJhzu-9S760XZmtnRoHTf8xsz8ync4ropd6_d-NBOpksp1S4sdaQZn762raW9smNDN78n74McDrsUq3H4jW4dhsC3f2cEZqoYzfoOd_8F3s5mXeMaN63hFc6-Xac_P1-uSL8bn7ElvxogvHtZT9vXDxZftp-Ty88dqe36ZtFKrOREZdrLIoJFlmQqlcihSAYWQUgtU2OSYNY2GXhSqkZlQrabf7HWfQYlai0aesjdH333w3xeMcz3Z2OI4God-iXWqCshLCSoj9PU_6K1fAr2KqDzVAKUWmqj0SLXBxxiwr_fBTibc1QLqNdz6GG5NedX34daKRK8erJdmwu6P5HeaBMgjEKnlBgx_Z__H9heRa6_2</recordid><startdate>20220201</startdate><enddate>20220201</enddate><creator>Teixeira, Fernanda Cardoso</creator><creator>de Mattos, Bruna da Silveira</creator><creator>Mello, Julia Eisenhardt de</creator><creator>Cardoso, Juliane</creator><creator>Spohr, Luiza</creator><creator>Luduvico, Karina Pereira</creator><creator>Soares, Mayara Sandrielly Pereira</creator><creator>Carvalho, Fabiano Barbosa</creator><creator>Gutierres, Jessie Martins</creator><creator>Oliveira Campello Felix, Anelize de</creator><creator>Stefanello, Francieli Moro</creator><creator>Spanevello, Roselia Maria</creator><general>Springer US</general><general>Springer Nature B.V</general><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>3V.</scope><scope>7QR</scope><scope>7TK</scope><scope>7U7</scope><scope>7X7</scope><scope>7XB</scope><scope>88A</scope><scope>88E</scope><scope>8AO</scope><scope>8FD</scope><scope>8FE</scope><scope>8FH</scope><scope>8FI</scope><scope>8FJ</scope><scope>8FK</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BBNVY</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>BHPHI</scope><scope>C1K</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>FR3</scope><scope>FYUFA</scope><scope>GHDGH</scope><scope>GNUQQ</scope><scope>HCIFZ</scope><scope>K9.</scope><scope>LK8</scope><scope>M0S</scope><scope>M1P</scope><scope>M7P</scope><scope>P64</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>PRINS</scope><scope>7X8</scope></search><sort><creationdate>20220201</creationdate><title>Protective Effects of Inosine on Memory Consolidation in a Rat Model of Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Impairment: Involvement of Cholinergic Signaling, Redox Status, and Ion Pump Activities</title><author>Teixeira, Fernanda Cardoso ; de Mattos, Bruna da Silveira ; Mello, Julia Eisenhardt de ; Cardoso, Juliane ; Spohr, Luiza ; Luduvico, Karina Pereira ; Soares, Mayara Sandrielly Pereira ; Carvalho, Fabiano Barbosa ; Gutierres, Jessie Martins ; Oliveira Campello Felix, Anelize de ; Stefanello, Francieli Moro ; Spanevello, Roselia Maria</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c375t-14ed3840b3992155608210813371e5eb6e4bb70f185b3415c7460f7f409e771b3</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2022</creationdate><topic>Acetylcholinesterase</topic><topic>Acetylcholinesterase - metabolism</topic><topic>Alzheimer's disease</topic><topic>Animal cognition</topic><topic>Animals</topic><topic>Antioxidants</topic><topic>Avoidance</topic><topic>Biochemistry</topic><topic>Biomedical and Life Sciences</topic><topic>Biomedicine</topic><topic>Catalase</topic><topic>Cell Biology</topic><topic>Cholinergic Agents - adverse effects</topic><topic>Cholinergics</topic><topic>Cognitive ability</topic><topic>Cognitive Dysfunction</topic><topic>Consolidation</topic><topic>Drug therapy</topic><topic>Impairment</topic><topic>Inosine - adverse effects</topic><topic>Ion Pumps - pharmacology</topic><topic>Ion Pumps - therapeutic use</topic><topic>Male</topic><topic>Maze Learning</topic><topic>Memory</topic><topic>Memory Consolidation</topic><topic>Memory Disorders - chemically induced</topic><topic>Memory Disorders - drug therapy</topic><topic>Memory Disorders - prevention & control</topic><topic>Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase</topic><topic>Neurochemistry</topic><topic>Neurodegenerative diseases</topic><topic>Neurology</topic><topic>Neurosciences</topic><topic>Original Paper</topic><topic>Oxidation-Reduction</topic><topic>Oxidative Stress</topic><topic>Rats</topic><topic>Rats, Wistar</topic><topic>Reactive oxygen species</topic><topic>Rodents</topic><topic>Scopolamine</topic><topic>Scopolamine - pharmacology</topic><topic>Signaling</topic><topic>Superoxide dismutase</topic><topic>Thiobarbituric acid</topic><topic>Training</topic><toplevel>peer_reviewed</toplevel><toplevel>online_resources</toplevel><creatorcontrib>Teixeira, Fernanda Cardoso</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>de Mattos, Bruna da Silveira</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Mello, Julia Eisenhardt de</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Cardoso, Juliane</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Spohr, Luiza</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Luduvico, Karina Pereira</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Soares, Mayara Sandrielly Pereira</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Carvalho, Fabiano Barbosa</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Gutierres, Jessie Martins</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Oliveira Campello Felix, Anelize de</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Stefanello, Francieli Moro</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Spanevello, Roselia Maria</creatorcontrib><collection>Medline</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE (Ovid)</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>PubMed</collection><collection>CrossRef</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Corporate)</collection><collection>Chemoreception Abstracts</collection><collection>Neurosciences Abstracts</collection><collection>Toxicology Abstracts</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>Biology Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Medical Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Pharma Collection</collection><collection>Technology Research Database</collection><collection>ProQuest SciTech Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Natural Science Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni) (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central UK/Ireland</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Essentials</collection><collection>Biological Science Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central</collection><collection>Natural Science Collection</collection><collection>Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management</collection><collection>ProQuest One Community College</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Korea</collection><collection>Engineering Research Database</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Student</collection><collection>SciTech Premium Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Health & Medical Complete (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Biological Science Collection</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Medical Database</collection><collection>Biological Science Database</collection><collection>Biotechnology and BioEngineering Abstracts</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic Eastern Edition (DO NOT USE)</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic UKI Edition</collection><collection>ProQuest Central China</collection><collection>MEDLINE - Academic</collection><jtitle>Neurochemical research</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Teixeira, Fernanda Cardoso</au><au>de Mattos, Bruna da Silveira</au><au>Mello, Julia Eisenhardt de</au><au>Cardoso, Juliane</au><au>Spohr, Luiza</au><au>Luduvico, Karina Pereira</au><au>Soares, Mayara Sandrielly Pereira</au><au>Carvalho, Fabiano Barbosa</au><au>Gutierres, Jessie Martins</au><au>Oliveira Campello Felix, Anelize de</au><au>Stefanello, Francieli Moro</au><au>Spanevello, Roselia Maria</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>Protective Effects of Inosine on Memory Consolidation in a Rat Model of Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Impairment: Involvement of Cholinergic Signaling, Redox Status, and Ion Pump Activities</atitle><jtitle>Neurochemical research</jtitle><stitle>Neurochem Res</stitle><addtitle>Neurochem Res</addtitle><date>2022-02-01</date><risdate>2022</risdate><volume>47</volume><issue>2</issue><spage>446</spage><epage>460</epage><pages>446-460</pages><issn>0364-3190</issn><eissn>1573-6903</eissn><abstract>This study investigated the effects of inosine on memory acquisition and consolidation, cholinesterases activities, redox status and Na
+
, K
+
-ATPase activity in a rat model of scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment. Adult male rats were divided into four groups: control (saline), scopolamine (1 mg/kg), scopolamine plus inosine (50 mg/kg), and scopolamine plus inosine (100 mg/kg). Inosine was pre-administered for 7 days, intraperitoneally. On day 8, scopolamine was administered pre (memory acquisition protocol) or post training (memory consolidation protocol) on inhibitory avoidance tasks. The animals were subjected to the step-down inhibitory avoidance task 24 hours after the training. Scopolamine induced impairment in the acquisition and consolidation phases; however, inosine was able to prevent only the impairment in memory consolidation. Also, scopolamine increased the activity of acetylcholinesterase and reduced the activity of Na
+
, K
+
-ATPase and the treatment with inosine protected against these alterations in consolidation protocol. In the animals treated with scopolamine, inosine improved the redox status by reducing the levels of reactive oxygen species and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and restoring the activity of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and catalase. Our findings suggest that inosine may offer protection against scopolamine-induced memory consolidation impairment by modulating brain redox status, cholinergic signaling and ion pump activity. This compound may provide an interesting approach in pharmacotherapy and as a prophylactic against neurodegenerative mechanisms involved in Alzheimer’s disease.
Graphic Abstract</abstract><cop>New York</cop><pub>Springer US</pub><pmid>34623562</pmid><doi>10.1007/s11064-021-03460-5</doi><tpages>15</tpages></addata></record> |
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| ispartof | Neurochemical research, 2022-02, Vol.47 (2), p.446-460 |
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| language | eng |
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| source | MEDLINE; SpringerNature Journals |
| subjects | Acetylcholinesterase Acetylcholinesterase - metabolism Alzheimer's disease Animal cognition Animals Antioxidants Avoidance Biochemistry Biomedical and Life Sciences Biomedicine Catalase Cell Biology Cholinergic Agents - adverse effects Cholinergics Cognitive ability Cognitive Dysfunction Consolidation Drug therapy Impairment Inosine - adverse effects Ion Pumps - pharmacology Ion Pumps - therapeutic use Male Maze Learning Memory Memory Consolidation Memory Disorders - chemically induced Memory Disorders - drug therapy Memory Disorders - prevention & control Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase Neurochemistry Neurodegenerative diseases Neurology Neurosciences Original Paper Oxidation-Reduction Oxidative Stress Rats Rats, Wistar Reactive oxygen species Rodents Scopolamine Scopolamine - pharmacology Signaling Superoxide dismutase Thiobarbituric acid Training |
| title | Protective Effects of Inosine on Memory Consolidation in a Rat Model of Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Impairment: Involvement of Cholinergic Signaling, Redox Status, and Ion Pump Activities |
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