Temperature, Hydrostatic Pressure, and Osmolyte Effects on Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation in Protein Condensates: Physical Chemistry and Biological Implications

Liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) of proteins and other biomolecules play a critical role in the organization of extracellular materials and membrane‐less compartmentalization of intra‐organismal spaces through the formation of condensates. Structural properties of such mesoscopic droplet‐like states were studied by spectroscopy, microscopy, and other biophysical techniques. The temperature dependence of biomolecular LLPS has been studied extensively, indicating that phase‐separated condensed states of proteins can be stabilized or destabilized by increasing temperature. In contrast, the physical and biological significance of hydrostatic pressure on LLPS is less appreciated. Summarized here are recent investigations of protein LLPS under pressures up to the kbar‐regime. Strikingly, for the cases studied thus far, LLPSs of both globular proteins and intrinsically disordered proteins/regions are typically more sensitive to pressure than the folding of proteins, suggesting that organisms inhabiting the deep sea and sub‐seafloor sediments, under pressures up to 1 kbar and beyond, have to mitigate this pressure‐sensitivity to avoid unwanted destabilization of their functional biomolecular condensates. Interestingly, we found that trimethylamine‐N‐oxide (TMAO), an osmolyte upregulated in deep‐sea fish, can significantly stabilize protein droplets under pressure, pointing to another adaptive advantage for increased TMAO concentrations in deep‐sea organisms besides the osmolyte's stabilizing effect against protein unfolding. As life on Earth might have originated in the deep sea, pressure‐dependent LLPS is pertinent to questions regarding prebiotic proto‐cells. Herein, we offer a conceptual framework for rationalizing the recent experimental findings and present an outline of the basic thermodynamics of temperature‐, pressure‐, and osmolyte‐dependent LLPS as well as a molecular‐level statistical mechanics picture in terms of solvent‐mediated interactions and void volumes. Protein–protein interactions: In this Review, we show that protein condensates are typically more sensitive to pressure than the folding of proteins, suggesting that organisms thriving in the deep sea must mitigate this pressure sensitivity.