Influence of Cloud Condensation Nuclei on Orographic Snowfall

Pollution aerosols acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) have the potential to alter warm rain clouds via the aerosol first and second indirect effects in which they modify the cloud droplet population, cloud lifetime and size, rainfall efficiency, and radiation balance from increased albedo. For constant liquid water content, an increase in CCN concentration (NCCN) tends to produce an increased concentration of droplets with smaller diameters. This reduces the collision and coalescence rate, and thus there is a local reduction in rainfall. While this process applies to warm clouds, it does not identically carry over to mixed-phase clouds in which crystal nucleation, crystal riming, crystal versus droplet fall speed, and collection efficiency play active roles in determining precipitation amount. Sulfate-based aerosols serve as very efficient cloud nuclei but are not effective as ice-forming nuclei. In clouds where precipitation formation is dominated by the ice phase, NCCNinfluences precipitation growth by altering the efficiency of droplet collection by ice crystals and the fall trajectories of both droplet and crystal hydrometeors. The temporal and spatial variation in both crystal and droplet populations determines the resultant snowfall efficiency and distribution. Results of numerical simulations in this study suggest that CCN can play a significant role in snowfall production by winter, mixedphase, cloud systems when liquid and ice hydrometeors coexist. In subfreezing conditions, a precipitating ice cloud overlaying a supercooled liquid water cloud allows growth of precipitation particles via the seeder–feeder process, in which nucleated ice crystals fall through the supercooled liquid water cloud and collect droplets. Enhanced NCCNfrom sulfate pollution by fossil fuel emissions modifies the droplet distribution and reduces crystal riming efficiency. Reduced riming efficiency inhibits the rate of snow growth, producing lightly rimed snow crystals that fall slowly and advect farther downstream prior to surface deposition. Simulations indicate that increasing NCCNalong the orographic barrier of the Park Range in north-central Colorado results in a modification of the orographic cloud such that the surface snow water equivalent amounts are reduced on the windward slopes and enhanced on the leeward slopes. The inhibition of snowfall by pollution aerosols (ISPA) effect has significant implications for water resource distribution in mountainous terrai