Farms, fires, and forestry: Disturbance legacies in the soils of the Northwest Wisconsin (USA) Sand Plain

We studied the long-term effects of disturbance within the Northwest Wisconsin (USA) Sand Plain (NWSP), an ecoregion that is characterized by very sandy soil and an active disturbance history that includes fire, agriculture and industrial forestry, largely clearcut logging of jack pine ( Pinus banksiana) and aspen ( Populus spp.). Open “barrens” communities on this landscape were formerly maintained by fire, and are a high conservation priority. Hill's Oak ( Quercus ellipsoidalis) can also dominate forest canopies, while blueberry ( Vaccinium angustifolium), and sweetfern ( Comptonia peregrina) are common shrub species. We structured a field sampling design with a spatial-temporal database built from historic airphotos (1938 and 1997) and fire records to examine whether soil organic matter and nutrients vary with disturbance history in the nonforest habitats of the sand plain. We sampled soils along 83 transects, randomly stratified among five sampled classes: (1) nonforest-farming history; (2) nonforest-fire history; (3) nonforest-clearcut only history; (4) evergreen forest of jack pine and red pine ( P. resinosa); and (5) deciduous forest of Hill's oak and aspen. Logging of the original forest took place in the late 1800s–early 1900s. The farms were abandoned between 1938 and 1960, and the most recent fire occurred in 1977. Thus, the duration of the agricultural legacy is approximately 45–65 years while observed fire effects have lasted for 26 years. We observed strong agricultural legacies, including high P and low OM, N and Ca. One possible explanation for the N legacy is that it is tied to soil OM accretion which may be driven by plant growth. We detected no difference in mean values for any of the soil properties between soils from nonforested areas within the Five-Mile fire and soils from nonforested areas with a clearcut-only history. We did observe a fire effect in high variance for soil P. This could have resulted from variations in fire severity and ash convection and deposition. Forest soils generally had lower pH than the nonforest soils, and the deciduous forest soils had the lowest pH and also very low Ca. We also observed high within-transect coefficient of variation for Ca in the forest soils. We conclude that agriculture is a qualitatively different disturbance-type than fire or clearcutting, that disturbance legacies tend to be most persistent with geologically stable elements, such as P, and that management and conservation planning wit