Evaluation of the effects of Er:YAG laser, Nd:YAG laser, and two different desensitizers on dentin permeability: in vitro study
The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate and compare the efficacy of erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Er:YAG) laser, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, PrevDent nano-hydroxyapatite toothpaste plus Repairing Serum Kit (PNH), and NUPRO Sensodyne Prophylaxis Paste wi...
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| Veröffentlicht in: | Lasers in medical science 2018-12, Vol.33 (9), p.1883-1890 |
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| creator | Kurt, Sevda Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan Ertaş, Ertan Oruçoğlu, Hasan |
| description | The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate and compare the efficacy of erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Er:YAG) laser, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, PrevDent nano-hydroxyapatite toothpaste plus Repairing Serum Kit (PNH), and NUPRO Sensodyne Prophylaxis Paste with NovaMin (NPP) on dentin permeability reduction. Forty dentin discs obtained from bovine incisors were divided into four study groups: Er:YAG laser-treated (2940 nm; 0.2 W, 80 mJ/pulse, 3 Hz); Nd:YAG laser-treated (1064 nm; 1 W, 10 Hz); PNH-treated; and NPP-treated groups. The quantitative changes in permeability of each dentin disc were measured using a computerized fluid filtration method (CFFM) before and after desensitizer treatments. The data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon, paired-samples
t
, Kruskal-Wallis, and Mann-Whitney
U
tests. The dentin surfaces and tubules were also morphologically detected by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In all groups, dentin permeability was significantly reduced after the desensitizer and laser treatments (
p
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| doi_str_mv | 10.1007/s10103-018-2546-1 |
| format | Article |
| fullrecord | <record><control><sourceid>proquest_cross</sourceid><recordid>TN_cdi_proquest_miscellaneous_2047928722</recordid><sourceformat>XML</sourceformat><sourcesystem>PC</sourcesystem><sourcerecordid>2047928722</sourcerecordid><originalsourceid>FETCH-LOGICAL-c372t-2d0419680e993cb77d827be998d321ef7bc14995c831334f0571a69e8b4dda633</originalsourceid><addsrcrecordid>eNp1kU9rFTEUxYNY7LP6AdxIwI0LR3OTmfzprpRnFYpuFHQVMpM7mjIv80wyleemX908Xm1FcHU59_7OSeAQ8gzYa2BMvcnAgImGgW5418oGHpAVtKJrJGu_PCQrxqVutOFwTB7nfMUYKAniETnmRnfMSL4iN-trNy2uhDnSeaTlO1IcRxxK3st1Ov16dkEnlzG9oh_838pFT8vPmfpQ-YSxUI8ZYw4l_MJU7bEuYgmRbjFt0PVhCmV3SuviOpQ001wWv3tCjkY3ZXx6O0_I57frT-fvmsuPF-_Pzy6bQSheGu5ZC0ZqhsaIoVfKa676KrQXHHBU_QCtMd2gBQjRjqxT4KRB3bfeOynECXl5yN2m-ceCudhNyANOk4s4L9ly1irDteK8oi_-Qa_mJcX6uz0lDe9UpyoFB2pIc84JR7tNYePSzgKz-3bsoR1b27H7dixUz_Pb5KXfoL9z_KmjAvwA5HqK3zDdP_3_1N-skpk1</addsrcrecordid><sourcetype>Aggregation Database</sourcetype><iscdi>true</iscdi><recordtype>article</recordtype><pqid>2046925757</pqid></control><display><type>article</type><title>Evaluation of the effects of Er:YAG laser, Nd:YAG laser, and two different desensitizers on dentin permeability: in vitro study</title><source>MEDLINE</source><source>SpringerLink Journals</source><creator>Kurt, Sevda ; Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul ; Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan ; Ertaş, Ertan ; Oruçoğlu, Hasan</creator><creatorcontrib>Kurt, Sevda ; Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul ; Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan ; Ertaş, Ertan ; Oruçoğlu, Hasan</creatorcontrib><description>The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate and compare the efficacy of erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Er:YAG) laser, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, PrevDent nano-hydroxyapatite toothpaste plus Repairing Serum Kit (PNH), and NUPRO Sensodyne Prophylaxis Paste with NovaMin (NPP) on dentin permeability reduction. Forty dentin discs obtained from bovine incisors were divided into four study groups: Er:YAG laser-treated (2940 nm; 0.2 W, 80 mJ/pulse, 3 Hz); Nd:YAG laser-treated (1064 nm; 1 W, 10 Hz); PNH-treated; and NPP-treated groups. The quantitative changes in permeability of each dentin disc were measured using a computerized fluid filtration method (CFFM) before and after desensitizer treatments. The data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon, paired-samples
t
, Kruskal-Wallis, and Mann-Whitney
U
tests. The dentin surfaces and tubules were also morphologically detected by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In all groups, dentin permeability was significantly reduced after the desensitizer and laser treatments (
p
< 0.05). Among the groups, we detected a significant difference in only when comparing the Er:YAG laser- and NPP-treated groups (
p
= 0.034). SEM analysis revealed physical changes in the dentin surface in all groups. This in vitro study shows that all tested desensitizers and laser treatments reduced dentin permeability. Also, surface changes, such as complete or partial occlusion or shrinkage of dentin tubules, were observed in all groups. Although the laser groups performed best, the PNH protocol can be considered as an alternative therapeutic product. In addition, clinical and laboratory studies should be performed for this product, and their efficacy should be assessed by combined therapy with lasers.</description><identifier>ISSN: 0268-8921</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1435-604X</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1007/s10103-018-2546-1</identifier><identifier>PMID: 29850962</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>London: Springer London</publisher><subject>Aluminum ; Animals ; Cattle ; Data processing ; Dentin ; Dentin - drug effects ; Dentin - ultrastructure ; Dentin Desensitizing Agents - pharmacology ; Dentin Permeability - drug effects ; Dentistry ; Desensitization ; Drug Combinations ; Durapatite - pharmacology ; Erbium ; Fluorides - pharmacology ; Glass ; Hydroxyapatite ; Incisors ; Lasers ; Lasers, Solid-State ; Maintenance ; Medicine ; Medicine & Public Health ; Nanoparticles - chemistry ; Neodymium ; Neodymium lasers ; Nitrates - pharmacology ; Occlusion ; Optical Devices ; Optics ; Original Article ; Permeability ; Phosphates - pharmacology ; Photonics ; Prophylaxis ; Quantum Optics ; Scanning electron microscopy ; Semiconductor lasers ; Shrinkage ; Toothpaste ; Tubules ; YAG lasers ; Yttrium</subject><ispartof>Lasers in medical science, 2018-12, Vol.33 (9), p.1883-1890</ispartof><rights>Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2018</rights><rights>Lasers in Medical Science is a copyright of Springer, (2018). All Rights Reserved.</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c372t-2d0419680e993cb77d827be998d321ef7bc14995c831334f0571a69e8b4dda633</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c372t-2d0419680e993cb77d827be998d321ef7bc14995c831334f0571a69e8b4dda633</cites><orcidid>0000-0002-3711-6520</orcidid></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktopdf>$$Uhttps://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10103-018-2546-1$$EPDF$$P50$$Gspringer$$H</linktopdf><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10103-018-2546-1$$EHTML$$P50$$Gspringer$$H</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>314,776,780,27901,27902,41464,42533,51294</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29850962$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Kurt, Sevda</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Ertaş, Ertan</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Oruçoğlu, Hasan</creatorcontrib><title>Evaluation of the effects of Er:YAG laser, Nd:YAG laser, and two different desensitizers on dentin permeability: in vitro study</title><title>Lasers in medical science</title><addtitle>Lasers Med Sci</addtitle><addtitle>Lasers Med Sci</addtitle><description>The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate and compare the efficacy of erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Er:YAG) laser, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, PrevDent nano-hydroxyapatite toothpaste plus Repairing Serum Kit (PNH), and NUPRO Sensodyne Prophylaxis Paste with NovaMin (NPP) on dentin permeability reduction. Forty dentin discs obtained from bovine incisors were divided into four study groups: Er:YAG laser-treated (2940 nm; 0.2 W, 80 mJ/pulse, 3 Hz); Nd:YAG laser-treated (1064 nm; 1 W, 10 Hz); PNH-treated; and NPP-treated groups. The quantitative changes in permeability of each dentin disc were measured using a computerized fluid filtration method (CFFM) before and after desensitizer treatments. The data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon, paired-samples
t
, Kruskal-Wallis, and Mann-Whitney
U
tests. The dentin surfaces and tubules were also morphologically detected by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In all groups, dentin permeability was significantly reduced after the desensitizer and laser treatments (
p
< 0.05). Among the groups, we detected a significant difference in only when comparing the Er:YAG laser- and NPP-treated groups (
p
= 0.034). SEM analysis revealed physical changes in the dentin surface in all groups. This in vitro study shows that all tested desensitizers and laser treatments reduced dentin permeability. Also, surface changes, such as complete or partial occlusion or shrinkage of dentin tubules, were observed in all groups. Although the laser groups performed best, the PNH protocol can be considered as an alternative therapeutic product. In addition, clinical and laboratory studies should be performed for this product, and their efficacy should be assessed by combined therapy with lasers.</description><subject>Aluminum</subject><subject>Animals</subject><subject>Cattle</subject><subject>Data processing</subject><subject>Dentin</subject><subject>Dentin - drug effects</subject><subject>Dentin - ultrastructure</subject><subject>Dentin Desensitizing Agents - pharmacology</subject><subject>Dentin Permeability - drug effects</subject><subject>Dentistry</subject><subject>Desensitization</subject><subject>Drug Combinations</subject><subject>Durapatite - pharmacology</subject><subject>Erbium</subject><subject>Fluorides - pharmacology</subject><subject>Glass</subject><subject>Hydroxyapatite</subject><subject>Incisors</subject><subject>Lasers</subject><subject>Lasers, Solid-State</subject><subject>Maintenance</subject><subject>Medicine</subject><subject>Medicine & Public Health</subject><subject>Nanoparticles - chemistry</subject><subject>Neodymium</subject><subject>Neodymium lasers</subject><subject>Nitrates - pharmacology</subject><subject>Occlusion</subject><subject>Optical Devices</subject><subject>Optics</subject><subject>Original Article</subject><subject>Permeability</subject><subject>Phosphates - pharmacology</subject><subject>Photonics</subject><subject>Prophylaxis</subject><subject>Quantum Optics</subject><subject>Scanning electron microscopy</subject><subject>Semiconductor lasers</subject><subject>Shrinkage</subject><subject>Toothpaste</subject><subject>Tubules</subject><subject>YAG lasers</subject><subject>Yttrium</subject><issn>0268-8921</issn><issn>1435-604X</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2018</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>EIF</sourceid><sourceid>BENPR</sourceid><recordid>eNp1kU9rFTEUxYNY7LP6AdxIwI0LR3OTmfzprpRnFYpuFHQVMpM7mjIv80wyleemX908Xm1FcHU59_7OSeAQ8gzYa2BMvcnAgImGgW5418oGHpAVtKJrJGu_PCQrxqVutOFwTB7nfMUYKAniETnmRnfMSL4iN-trNy2uhDnSeaTlO1IcRxxK3st1Ov16dkEnlzG9oh_838pFT8vPmfpQ-YSxUI8ZYw4l_MJU7bEuYgmRbjFt0PVhCmV3SuviOpQ001wWv3tCjkY3ZXx6O0_I57frT-fvmsuPF-_Pzy6bQSheGu5ZC0ZqhsaIoVfKa676KrQXHHBU_QCtMd2gBQjRjqxT4KRB3bfeOynECXl5yN2m-ceCudhNyANOk4s4L9ly1irDteK8oi_-Qa_mJcX6uz0lDe9UpyoFB2pIc84JR7tNYePSzgKz-3bsoR1b27H7dixUz_Pb5KXfoL9z_KmjAvwA5HqK3zDdP_3_1N-skpk1</recordid><startdate>20181201</startdate><enddate>20181201</enddate><creator>Kurt, Sevda</creator><creator>Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul</creator><creator>Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan</creator><creator>Ertaş, Ertan</creator><creator>Oruçoğlu, Hasan</creator><general>Springer London</general><general>Springer Nature B.V</general><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>3V.</scope><scope>7QO</scope><scope>7RV</scope><scope>7SP</scope><scope>7U5</scope><scope>7X7</scope><scope>7XB</scope><scope>88E</scope><scope>8AO</scope><scope>8FD</scope><scope>8FE</scope><scope>8FG</scope><scope>8FH</scope><scope>8FI</scope><scope>8FJ</scope><scope>8FK</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>ARAPS</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BBNVY</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>BGLVJ</scope><scope>BHPHI</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>FR3</scope><scope>FYUFA</scope><scope>GHDGH</scope><scope>GNUQQ</scope><scope>H8D</scope><scope>HCIFZ</scope><scope>K9.</scope><scope>KB0</scope><scope>L7M</scope><scope>LK8</scope><scope>M0S</scope><scope>M1P</scope><scope>M7P</scope><scope>NAPCQ</scope><scope>P5Z</scope><scope>P62</scope><scope>P64</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>PRINS</scope><scope>7X8</scope><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3711-6520</orcidid></search><sort><creationdate>20181201</creationdate><title>Evaluation of the effects of Er:YAG laser, Nd:YAG laser, and two different desensitizers on dentin permeability: in vitro study</title><author>Kurt, Sevda ; Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul ; Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan ; Ertaş, Ertan ; Oruçoğlu, Hasan</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c372t-2d0419680e993cb77d827be998d321ef7bc14995c831334f0571a69e8b4dda633</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2018</creationdate><topic>Aluminum</topic><topic>Animals</topic><topic>Cattle</topic><topic>Data processing</topic><topic>Dentin</topic><topic>Dentin - drug effects</topic><topic>Dentin - ultrastructure</topic><topic>Dentin Desensitizing Agents - pharmacology</topic><topic>Dentin Permeability - drug effects</topic><topic>Dentistry</topic><topic>Desensitization</topic><topic>Drug Combinations</topic><topic>Durapatite - pharmacology</topic><topic>Erbium</topic><topic>Fluorides - pharmacology</topic><topic>Glass</topic><topic>Hydroxyapatite</topic><topic>Incisors</topic><topic>Lasers</topic><topic>Lasers, Solid-State</topic><topic>Maintenance</topic><topic>Medicine</topic><topic>Medicine & Public Health</topic><topic>Nanoparticles - chemistry</topic><topic>Neodymium</topic><topic>Neodymium lasers</topic><topic>Nitrates - pharmacology</topic><topic>Occlusion</topic><topic>Optical Devices</topic><topic>Optics</topic><topic>Original Article</topic><topic>Permeability</topic><topic>Phosphates - pharmacology</topic><topic>Photonics</topic><topic>Prophylaxis</topic><topic>Quantum Optics</topic><topic>Scanning electron microscopy</topic><topic>Semiconductor lasers</topic><topic>Shrinkage</topic><topic>Toothpaste</topic><topic>Tubules</topic><topic>YAG lasers</topic><topic>Yttrium</topic><toplevel>peer_reviewed</toplevel><toplevel>online_resources</toplevel><creatorcontrib>Kurt, Sevda</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Ertaş, Ertan</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Oruçoğlu, Hasan</creatorcontrib><collection>Medline</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE (Ovid)</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>PubMed</collection><collection>CrossRef</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Corporate)</collection><collection>Biotechnology Research Abstracts</collection><collection>Nursing & Allied Health Database</collection><collection>Electronics & Communications Abstracts</collection><collection>Solid State and Superconductivity Abstracts</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>Medical Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Pharma Collection</collection><collection>Technology Research Database</collection><collection>ProQuest SciTech Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Technology Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Natural Science Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni) (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central UK/Ireland</collection><collection>Advanced Technologies & Aerospace Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Essentials</collection><collection>Biological Science Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central</collection><collection>Technology Collection</collection><collection>Natural Science Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest One Community College</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Korea</collection><collection>Engineering Research Database</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Student</collection><collection>Aerospace Database</collection><collection>SciTech Premium Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Health & Medical Complete (Alumni)</collection><collection>Nursing & Allied Health Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Advanced Technologies Database with Aerospace</collection><collection>ProQuest Biological Science Collection</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Medical Database</collection><collection>Biological Science Database</collection><collection>Nursing & Allied Health Premium</collection><collection>Advanced Technologies & Aerospace Database</collection><collection>ProQuest Advanced Technologies & Aerospace Collection</collection><collection>Biotechnology and BioEngineering Abstracts</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic Eastern Edition (DO NOT USE)</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic UKI Edition</collection><collection>ProQuest Central China</collection><collection>MEDLINE - Academic</collection><jtitle>Lasers in medical science</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Kurt, Sevda</au><au>Kırtıloğlu, Tuğrul</au><au>Yılmaz, Nasibe Aycan</au><au>Ertaş, Ertan</au><au>Oruçoğlu, Hasan</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>Evaluation of the effects of Er:YAG laser, Nd:YAG laser, and two different desensitizers on dentin permeability: in vitro study</atitle><jtitle>Lasers in medical science</jtitle><stitle>Lasers Med Sci</stitle><addtitle>Lasers Med Sci</addtitle><date>2018-12-01</date><risdate>2018</risdate><volume>33</volume><issue>9</issue><spage>1883</spage><epage>1890</epage><pages>1883-1890</pages><issn>0268-8921</issn><eissn>1435-604X</eissn><abstract>The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate and compare the efficacy of erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Er:YAG) laser, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, PrevDent nano-hydroxyapatite toothpaste plus Repairing Serum Kit (PNH), and NUPRO Sensodyne Prophylaxis Paste with NovaMin (NPP) on dentin permeability reduction. Forty dentin discs obtained from bovine incisors were divided into four study groups: Er:YAG laser-treated (2940 nm; 0.2 W, 80 mJ/pulse, 3 Hz); Nd:YAG laser-treated (1064 nm; 1 W, 10 Hz); PNH-treated; and NPP-treated groups. The quantitative changes in permeability of each dentin disc were measured using a computerized fluid filtration method (CFFM) before and after desensitizer treatments. The data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon, paired-samples
t
, Kruskal-Wallis, and Mann-Whitney
U
tests. The dentin surfaces and tubules were also morphologically detected by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In all groups, dentin permeability was significantly reduced after the desensitizer and laser treatments (
p
< 0.05). Among the groups, we detected a significant difference in only when comparing the Er:YAG laser- and NPP-treated groups (
p
= 0.034). SEM analysis revealed physical changes in the dentin surface in all groups. This in vitro study shows that all tested desensitizers and laser treatments reduced dentin permeability. Also, surface changes, such as complete or partial occlusion or shrinkage of dentin tubules, were observed in all groups. Although the laser groups performed best, the PNH protocol can be considered as an alternative therapeutic product. In addition, clinical and laboratory studies should be performed for this product, and their efficacy should be assessed by combined therapy with lasers.</abstract><cop>London</cop><pub>Springer London</pub><pmid>29850962</pmid><doi>10.1007/s10103-018-2546-1</doi><tpages>8</tpages><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3711-6520</orcidid></addata></record> |
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| ispartof | Lasers in medical science, 2018-12, Vol.33 (9), p.1883-1890 |
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| source | MEDLINE; SpringerLink Journals |
| subjects | Aluminum Animals Cattle Data processing Dentin Dentin - drug effects Dentin - ultrastructure Dentin Desensitizing Agents - pharmacology Dentin Permeability - drug effects Dentistry Desensitization Drug Combinations Durapatite - pharmacology Erbium Fluorides - pharmacology Glass Hydroxyapatite Incisors Lasers Lasers, Solid-State Maintenance Medicine Medicine & Public Health Nanoparticles - chemistry Neodymium Neodymium lasers Nitrates - pharmacology Occlusion Optical Devices Optics Original Article Permeability Phosphates - pharmacology Photonics Prophylaxis Quantum Optics Scanning electron microscopy Semiconductor lasers Shrinkage Toothpaste Tubules YAG lasers Yttrium |
| title | Evaluation of the effects of Er:YAG laser, Nd:YAG laser, and two different desensitizers on dentin permeability: in vitro study |
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