α- and β-casein aggregation induced by riboflavin-sensitized photo-oxidation occurs via di-tyrosine cross-links and is oxygen concentration dependent

•Riboflavin-sensitized photo-oxidation of α- and β-caseins was investigated.•Type I photo-oxidation generates Trp-(TrpN) and Tyr-derived (TyrO) radicals.•Yield of cross-links versus oxidized products is dependent on the O2 concentration.•High levels of inter- and intra-molecular cross-links are formed in the absence of O2.•Alternative cross-links were detected in the presence of O2. Type I photo-oxidation generates Trp-(TrpN) and Tyr-derived (TyrO) radicals in proteins which can dimerize producing cross-links, or alternatively react with O2. It was therefore hypothesized that the O2 concentration may have a significant effect on dye-photosensitized reactions. We studied photo-oxidation of α- and β-caseins induced by riboflavin (RF), a photosensitizing vitamin present in milk, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Triplet-state RF induced oxidative modifications on both caseins, and significant levels of cross-links. The extent of damage, and the yield of cross-links versus oxidized products, was dependent on the O2 concentration. In the absence of O2, the overall extent of damage was decreased, but the yield of cross-linked products was significantly elevated. These cross-links are consistent with inter- and intra-molecular di-Tyr or di-Trp bridges. Alternative cross-links were detected in the presence of O2, consistent with pathways involving the reaction of protein radicals with O2 or O2−.