Free Electrons to Molecular Bonds and Back: Closing the Energetic Oxygen Reduction (ORR)–Oxygen Evolution (OER) Cycle Using Core–Shell Nanoelectrocatalysts

Nanomaterial science and electrocatalytic science have entered a successful “nanoelectrochemical” symbiosis, in which novel nanomaterials offer new frontiers for studies on electrocatalytic charge transfer, while electrocatalytic processes give meaning and often practical importance to novel nanomaterial concepts. Examples of this fruitful symbiosis are dealloyed core–shell nanoparticle electrocatalysts, which often exhibit enhanced kinetic charge transfer rates at greatly improved atom-efficiency. As such, they represent ideal electrocatalyst architectures for the acidic oxygen reduction reaction to water (ORR) and the acidic oxygen evolution reaction from water (OER) that require scarce Pt- and Ir-based catalysts. Together, these two reactions constitute the “O-cycle”, a key elemental process loop in the field of electrochemical energy interconversion between electricity (free electrons) and molecular bonds (H2O/O2), realized in the combination of water electrolyzers and hydrogen/oxygen fuel cells. In this Account, we describe our recent efforts to design, synthesize, understand, and test noble metal-poor dealloyed Pt and Ir core–shell nanoparticles for deployment in acidic polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers and PEM fuel cells. Spherical dealloyed Pt core–shell particles, derived from PtNi3 precursor alloys, showed favorable ORR activity. More detailed size–activity correlation studies further revealed that the 6–8 nm diameter range is a most desirable initial particle size range in order to maximize the particle Ni content after ORR testing and to preserve performance stability. Similarly, dealloyed and oxidized IrO x core–shell particles derived from Ni-rich Ir–Ni precursor particles proved highly efficient oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalysts in acidic conditions. In addition to the noble metal savings in the particle cores, the Pt core–shell particles are believed to benefit in terms of their mass-based electrochemical kinetics from surface lattice strain effects that tune the adsorption energies and barriers of elementary steps. The molecular mechanism of the kinetic benefit of the dealloyed IrO x particle needs more attention, but there is mounting evidence for ligand hole effects in defect-rich IrO x shells that generate preactive oxygen centers.