Sources of chemical contaminants and routes into the freshwater environment

Drinking water is derived from either surface waters or groundwater. The latter is of enormous importance, with more than 65% of Europe's drinking water needs being supplied in this way. However, water from either source is rarely, if ever, pure. Industrialization and urbanization together with intensified agricultural activity have led to increased demands for water on the one hand but to the potential for large scale release of contaminants on the other. The result is that surface water can be contaminated through direct or indirect emissions and groundwater can be contaminated by leaching from the soil. The diversity and number of existing and potential sources of chemical contamination are quite large. This paper reviews the major sources of chemical emissions and the routes by which contaminants can arise in surface waters and groundwaters intended for use as a supply of drinking water. It is estimated that there are between 90,000 and 100,000 chemicals in regular use but that as few as 3000 account for about 90% of the total mass used. Whether a substance may be found in the air, soil or aqueous environment depends on a number of factors, including how the chemical is released, the volume released, where the chemical is released, its release pattern and its physicochemical properties. Of the major routes of contamination for the aquatic environment, the most significant are directly from treated and untreated waste waters, run-off and atmospheric deposition (including spray drift) and indirectly from leaching. The fate of emissions of contaminants in a particular water body will depend not only on the amount of the substance emitted but also on the transport, dispersion and transformation (biodegradation, hydrolysis, photolysis) processes in the receiving body. The preventative measures (biodegradation testing and sewage treatment) taken to minimize contamination are discussed.