Microporous calcium phosphate ceramics as tissue engineering scaffolds for the repair of osteochondral defects: Biomechanical results
This work investigated the suitability of microporous β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffolds pre-seeded with autologous chondrocytes for treatment of osteochondral defects in a large animal model. Microporous β-TCP cylinders (Ø 7mm; length 25mm) were seeded with autologous chondrocytes and cultured...
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| creator | Mayr, H.O. Klehm, J. Schwan, S. Hube, R. Südkamp, N.P. Niemeyer, P. Salzmann, G. von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R. Heilmann, A. Bohner, M. Bernstein, A. |
| description | This work investigated the suitability of microporous β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffolds pre-seeded with autologous chondrocytes for treatment of osteochondral defects in a large animal model. Microporous β-TCP cylinders (Ø 7mm; length 25mm) were seeded with autologous chondrocytes and cultured for 4weeks in vitro. Only the upper end of the cylinder was seeded with chondrocytes. Chondrocytes formed a multilayer on the top. The implants were then implanted in defects (diameter 7mm) created in the left medial femoral condyle of ovine knees. The implants were covered with synovial membrane from the superior recess of the same joint. For the right knees, an empty defect with the same dimensions served as control. Twenty-eight sheep were split into 6-, 12-, 26- and 52week groups of seven animals. Indentation tests with a spherical (Ø 3mm) indenter were used to determine the biomechanical properties of regenerated tissue. A software-based limit switch was implemented to ensure a maximal penetration depth of 200μm and maximal load of 1.5N. The achieved load, the absorbed energy and the contact stiffness were measured. Newly formed cartilage was assessed with the International Cartilage Repair Society Visual Assessment Scale (ICRS score) and histomorphometric analysis. Results were analysed statistically using the t-test, Mann–Whitney U-test and Wilcoxon test. Statistical significance was set at p |
| doi_str_mv | 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.07.040 |
| format | Article |
| fullrecord | <record><control><sourceid>proquest_cross</sourceid><recordid>TN_cdi_proquest_miscellaneous_1692360571</recordid><sourceformat>XML</sourceformat><sourcesystem>PC</sourcesystem><els_id>S1742706112003595</els_id><sourcerecordid>1692360571</sourcerecordid><originalsourceid>FETCH-LOGICAL-c518t-41dd9988dad647016856995cbe2ca3c95cb855a4f66be10600d098254c620e843</originalsourceid><addsrcrecordid>eNqFkctu1TAQhiNERS_wBgi8ZJMwdhLHYYFUqnKRWnVRurZ87MmJj5I4eBIkHoD3xkcpLOnKs_hmxvN_WfaaQ8GBy_eHwthl50MhgIsCmgIqeJadcdWovKmlep7qphJ5A5KfZudEB4BScaFeZKdCKJUQcZb9vvU2hjnEsBKzZrB-HdncB5p7syCzGM3oLTFDbPFEKzKc9n5CjH7aM7Km68LgiHUhsqVHFnE2PrLQsUALBtuHyUUzMIcd2oU-sE8-jGh7M_m0LeG0Dgu9zE46MxC-enwvsofP19-vvuY3d1--XV3e5Lbmaskr7lzbKuWMk1WTQkhHtG1tdyisKe2xUnVtqk7KHXKQAA5aJerKSgGoqvIie7fNnWP4sSItevRkcRjMhCkAzWUrSgl1w59GS1GKqq1V-zQqBJQpbaESWm1oCp0oYqfn6EcTf2kO-qhVH_SmVR-1amh00pra3jxuWHcjun9Nfz0m4O0GdCZos4-e9MN9mlADcFANHEd83AhM-f70GDVZj5NF52Myo13w___DH8Fzv-E</addsrcrecordid><sourcetype>Aggregation Database</sourcetype><iscdi>true</iscdi><recordtype>article</recordtype><pqid>1220368228</pqid></control><display><type>article</type><title>Microporous calcium phosphate ceramics as tissue engineering scaffolds for the repair of osteochondral defects: Biomechanical results</title><source>MEDLINE</source><source>Elsevier ScienceDirect Journals</source><creator>Mayr, H.O. ; Klehm, J. ; Schwan, S. ; Hube, R. ; Südkamp, N.P. ; Niemeyer, P. ; Salzmann, G. ; von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R. ; Heilmann, A. ; Bohner, M. ; Bernstein, A.</creator><creatorcontrib>Mayr, H.O. ; Klehm, J. ; Schwan, S. ; Hube, R. ; Südkamp, N.P. ; Niemeyer, P. ; Salzmann, G. ; von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R. ; Heilmann, A. ; Bohner, M. ; Bernstein, A.</creatorcontrib><description>This work investigated the suitability of microporous β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffolds pre-seeded with autologous chondrocytes for treatment of osteochondral defects in a large animal model. Microporous β-TCP cylinders (Ø 7mm; length 25mm) were seeded with autologous chondrocytes and cultured for 4weeks in vitro. Only the upper end of the cylinder was seeded with chondrocytes. Chondrocytes formed a multilayer on the top. The implants were then implanted in defects (diameter 7mm) created in the left medial femoral condyle of ovine knees. The implants were covered with synovial membrane from the superior recess of the same joint. For the right knees, an empty defect with the same dimensions served as control. Twenty-eight sheep were split into 6-, 12-, 26- and 52week groups of seven animals. Indentation tests with a spherical (Ø 3mm) indenter were used to determine the biomechanical properties of regenerated tissue. A software-based limit switch was implemented to ensure a maximal penetration depth of 200μm and maximal load of 1.5N. The achieved load, the absorbed energy and the contact stiffness were measured. Newly formed cartilage was assessed with the International Cartilage Repair Society Visual Assessment Scale (ICRS score) and histomorphometric analysis. Results were analysed statistically using the t-test, Mann–Whitney U-test and Wilcoxon test. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. After 6weeks of implantation, the transplanted area tolerated an indentation load of 0.05±0.20N. This value increased to 0.10±0.06N after 12weeks, to 0.27±0.18N after 26weeks, and 0.27±0.11N after 52weeks. The increase in the tolerated load was highly significant (p<0.0001), but the final value was not significantly different from that of intact cartilage (0.30±0.12N). Similarly, the increase in contact stiffness from 0.87±0.29Nmm−1 after 6weeks to 3.14±0.86Nmm−1 after 52weeks was highly significant (p<0.0001). The absorbed energy increased significantly (p=0.02) from 0.74×10−6±0.38×10−6Nm after 6weeks to 2.83×10−6±1.35×10−6Nm after 52weeks. At 52weeks, the International Cartilage Repair Society (ICRS) scores for the central area of the transplanted area and untreated defects were comparable. In contrast, the score for the area from the edge to the centre of the transplanted area was significantly higher (p=0.001) than the score for the unfilled defects. A biomechanically stable cartilage was built outside the centre of defect. After 52weeks, all but one empty control defect were covered by bone and a very thin layer of cartilage (ICRS 7 points). The empty hole could still be demonstrated beneath the bone. The histomorphometric evaluation revealed that 81.0±10.6% of TCP was resorbed after 52weeks. The increase in TCP resorption and replacement by spongy bone during the observation period was highly significant (p<0.0001). In this sheep trial, the mechanical properties of microporous TCP scaffolds seeded with transplanted autologous chondrocytes were similar to those of natural cartilage after 52weeks of implantation. However, the central area of the implants had a lower ICRS score than healthy cartilage. Microporous TCP was almost fully resorbed at 52weeks and replaced by bone.</description><identifier>ISSN: 1742-7061</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1878-7568</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.07.040</identifier><identifier>PMID: 22885682</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>England: Elsevier Ltd</publisher><subject>animal models ; Animals ; Biomechanical Phenomena ; biomechanics ; Bone and Bones ; Bones ; Calcium Phosphates ; Cartilage ; Ceramics ; chondrocytes ; Contact ; Defects ; energy ; Implantation ; Indentation ; knees ; mechanical properties ; Microporous tricalcium phosphate ; Osteochondral defect ; resorption ; Scaffold ; Scaffolds ; Sheep ; Sheep trial ; Surgical implants ; t-test ; TCP (protocol) ; Tissue Engineering ; Tissue Scaffolds</subject><ispartof>Acta biomaterialia, 2013-01, Vol.9 (1), p.4845-4855</ispartof><rights>2012 Acta Materialia Inc.</rights><rights>Copyright © 2012 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c518t-41dd9988dad647016856995cbe2ca3c95cb855a4f66be10600d098254c620e843</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c518t-41dd9988dad647016856995cbe2ca3c95cb855a4f66be10600d098254c620e843</cites></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1742706112003595$$EHTML$$P50$$Gelsevier$$H</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>314,776,780,3537,4010,27900,27901,27902,65306</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22885682$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Mayr, H.O.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Klehm, J.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Schwan, S.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Hube, R.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Südkamp, N.P.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Niemeyer, P.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Salzmann, G.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Heilmann, A.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Bohner, M.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Bernstein, A.</creatorcontrib><title>Microporous calcium phosphate ceramics as tissue engineering scaffolds for the repair of osteochondral defects: Biomechanical results</title><title>Acta biomaterialia</title><addtitle>Acta Biomater</addtitle><description>This work investigated the suitability of microporous β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffolds pre-seeded with autologous chondrocytes for treatment of osteochondral defects in a large animal model. Microporous β-TCP cylinders (Ø 7mm; length 25mm) were seeded with autologous chondrocytes and cultured for 4weeks in vitro. Only the upper end of the cylinder was seeded with chondrocytes. Chondrocytes formed a multilayer on the top. The implants were then implanted in defects (diameter 7mm) created in the left medial femoral condyle of ovine knees. The implants were covered with synovial membrane from the superior recess of the same joint. For the right knees, an empty defect with the same dimensions served as control. Twenty-eight sheep were split into 6-, 12-, 26- and 52week groups of seven animals. Indentation tests with a spherical (Ø 3mm) indenter were used to determine the biomechanical properties of regenerated tissue. A software-based limit switch was implemented to ensure a maximal penetration depth of 200μm and maximal load of 1.5N. The achieved load, the absorbed energy and the contact stiffness were measured. Newly formed cartilage was assessed with the International Cartilage Repair Society Visual Assessment Scale (ICRS score) and histomorphometric analysis. Results were analysed statistically using the t-test, Mann–Whitney U-test and Wilcoxon test. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. After 6weeks of implantation, the transplanted area tolerated an indentation load of 0.05±0.20N. This value increased to 0.10±0.06N after 12weeks, to 0.27±0.18N after 26weeks, and 0.27±0.11N after 52weeks. The increase in the tolerated load was highly significant (p<0.0001), but the final value was not significantly different from that of intact cartilage (0.30±0.12N). Similarly, the increase in contact stiffness from 0.87±0.29Nmm−1 after 6weeks to 3.14±0.86Nmm−1 after 52weeks was highly significant (p<0.0001). The absorbed energy increased significantly (p=0.02) from 0.74×10−6±0.38×10−6Nm after 6weeks to 2.83×10−6±1.35×10−6Nm after 52weeks. At 52weeks, the International Cartilage Repair Society (ICRS) scores for the central area of the transplanted area and untreated defects were comparable. In contrast, the score for the area from the edge to the centre of the transplanted area was significantly higher (p=0.001) than the score for the unfilled defects. A biomechanically stable cartilage was built outside the centre of defect. After 52weeks, all but one empty control defect were covered by bone and a very thin layer of cartilage (ICRS 7 points). The empty hole could still be demonstrated beneath the bone. The histomorphometric evaluation revealed that 81.0±10.6% of TCP was resorbed after 52weeks. The increase in TCP resorption and replacement by spongy bone during the observation period was highly significant (p<0.0001). In this sheep trial, the mechanical properties of microporous TCP scaffolds seeded with transplanted autologous chondrocytes were similar to those of natural cartilage after 52weeks of implantation. However, the central area of the implants had a lower ICRS score than healthy cartilage. Microporous TCP was almost fully resorbed at 52weeks and replaced by bone.</description><subject>animal models</subject><subject>Animals</subject><subject>Biomechanical Phenomena</subject><subject>biomechanics</subject><subject>Bone and Bones</subject><subject>Bones</subject><subject>Calcium Phosphates</subject><subject>Cartilage</subject><subject>Ceramics</subject><subject>chondrocytes</subject><subject>Contact</subject><subject>Defects</subject><subject>energy</subject><subject>Implantation</subject><subject>Indentation</subject><subject>knees</subject><subject>mechanical properties</subject><subject>Microporous tricalcium phosphate</subject><subject>Osteochondral defect</subject><subject>resorption</subject><subject>Scaffold</subject><subject>Scaffolds</subject><subject>Sheep</subject><subject>Sheep trial</subject><subject>Surgical implants</subject><subject>t-test</subject><subject>TCP (protocol)</subject><subject>Tissue Engineering</subject><subject>Tissue Scaffolds</subject><issn>1742-7061</issn><issn>1878-7568</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2013</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>EIF</sourceid><recordid>eNqFkctu1TAQhiNERS_wBgi8ZJMwdhLHYYFUqnKRWnVRurZ87MmJj5I4eBIkHoD3xkcpLOnKs_hmxvN_WfaaQ8GBy_eHwthl50MhgIsCmgIqeJadcdWovKmlep7qphJ5A5KfZudEB4BScaFeZKdCKJUQcZb9vvU2hjnEsBKzZrB-HdncB5p7syCzGM3oLTFDbPFEKzKc9n5CjH7aM7Km68LgiHUhsqVHFnE2PrLQsUALBtuHyUUzMIcd2oU-sE8-jGh7M_m0LeG0Dgu9zE46MxC-enwvsofP19-vvuY3d1--XV3e5Lbmaskr7lzbKuWMk1WTQkhHtG1tdyisKe2xUnVtqk7KHXKQAA5aJerKSgGoqvIie7fNnWP4sSItevRkcRjMhCkAzWUrSgl1w59GS1GKqq1V-zQqBJQpbaESWm1oCp0oYqfn6EcTf2kO-qhVH_SmVR-1amh00pra3jxuWHcjun9Nfz0m4O0GdCZos4-e9MN9mlADcFANHEd83AhM-f70GDVZj5NF52Myo13w___DH8Fzv-E</recordid><startdate>201301</startdate><enddate>201301</enddate><creator>Mayr, H.O.</creator><creator>Klehm, J.</creator><creator>Schwan, S.</creator><creator>Hube, R.</creator><creator>Südkamp, N.P.</creator><creator>Niemeyer, P.</creator><creator>Salzmann, G.</creator><creator>von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R.</creator><creator>Heilmann, A.</creator><creator>Bohner, M.</creator><creator>Bernstein, A.</creator><general>Elsevier Ltd</general><scope>FBQ</scope><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>7X8</scope><scope>7QO</scope><scope>7QP</scope><scope>8FD</scope><scope>FR3</scope><scope>P64</scope><scope>7QQ</scope><scope>7SR</scope><scope>7TB</scope><scope>7U5</scope><scope>8BQ</scope><scope>F28</scope><scope>JG9</scope><scope>L7M</scope></search><sort><creationdate>201301</creationdate><title>Microporous calcium phosphate ceramics as tissue engineering scaffolds for the repair of osteochondral defects: Biomechanical results</title><author>Mayr, H.O. ; Klehm, J. ; Schwan, S. ; Hube, R. ; Südkamp, N.P. ; Niemeyer, P. ; Salzmann, G. ; von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R. ; Heilmann, A. ; Bohner, M. ; Bernstein, A.</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c518t-41dd9988dad647016856995cbe2ca3c95cb855a4f66be10600d098254c620e843</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2013</creationdate><topic>animal models</topic><topic>Animals</topic><topic>Biomechanical Phenomena</topic><topic>biomechanics</topic><topic>Bone and Bones</topic><topic>Bones</topic><topic>Calcium Phosphates</topic><topic>Cartilage</topic><topic>Ceramics</topic><topic>chondrocytes</topic><topic>Contact</topic><topic>Defects</topic><topic>energy</topic><topic>Implantation</topic><topic>Indentation</topic><topic>knees</topic><topic>mechanical properties</topic><topic>Microporous tricalcium phosphate</topic><topic>Osteochondral defect</topic><topic>resorption</topic><topic>Scaffold</topic><topic>Scaffolds</topic><topic>Sheep</topic><topic>Sheep trial</topic><topic>Surgical implants</topic><topic>t-test</topic><topic>TCP (protocol)</topic><topic>Tissue Engineering</topic><topic>Tissue Scaffolds</topic><toplevel>peer_reviewed</toplevel><toplevel>online_resources</toplevel><creatorcontrib>Mayr, H.O.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Klehm, J.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Schwan, S.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Hube, R.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Südkamp, N.P.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Niemeyer, P.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Salzmann, G.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Heilmann, A.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Bohner, M.</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Bernstein, A.</creatorcontrib><collection>AGRIS</collection><collection>Medline</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE (Ovid)</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>PubMed</collection><collection>CrossRef</collection><collection>MEDLINE - Academic</collection><collection>Biotechnology Research Abstracts</collection><collection>Calcium & Calcified Tissue Abstracts</collection><collection>Technology Research Database</collection><collection>Engineering Research Database</collection><collection>Biotechnology and BioEngineering Abstracts</collection><collection>Ceramic Abstracts</collection><collection>Engineered Materials Abstracts</collection><collection>Mechanical & Transportation Engineering Abstracts</collection><collection>Solid State and Superconductivity Abstracts</collection><collection>METADEX</collection><collection>ANTE: Abstracts in New Technology & Engineering</collection><collection>Materials Research Database</collection><collection>Advanced Technologies Database with Aerospace</collection><jtitle>Acta biomaterialia</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Mayr, H.O.</au><au>Klehm, J.</au><au>Schwan, S.</au><au>Hube, R.</au><au>Südkamp, N.P.</au><au>Niemeyer, P.</au><au>Salzmann, G.</au><au>von Eisenhardt-Rothe, R.</au><au>Heilmann, A.</au><au>Bohner, M.</au><au>Bernstein, A.</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>Microporous calcium phosphate ceramics as tissue engineering scaffolds for the repair of osteochondral defects: Biomechanical results</atitle><jtitle>Acta biomaterialia</jtitle><addtitle>Acta Biomater</addtitle><date>2013-01</date><risdate>2013</risdate><volume>9</volume><issue>1</issue><spage>4845</spage><epage>4855</epage><pages>4845-4855</pages><issn>1742-7061</issn><eissn>1878-7568</eissn><abstract>This work investigated the suitability of microporous β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffolds pre-seeded with autologous chondrocytes for treatment of osteochondral defects in a large animal model. Microporous β-TCP cylinders (Ø 7mm; length 25mm) were seeded with autologous chondrocytes and cultured for 4weeks in vitro. Only the upper end of the cylinder was seeded with chondrocytes. Chondrocytes formed a multilayer on the top. The implants were then implanted in defects (diameter 7mm) created in the left medial femoral condyle of ovine knees. The implants were covered with synovial membrane from the superior recess of the same joint. For the right knees, an empty defect with the same dimensions served as control. Twenty-eight sheep were split into 6-, 12-, 26- and 52week groups of seven animals. Indentation tests with a spherical (Ø 3mm) indenter were used to determine the biomechanical properties of regenerated tissue. A software-based limit switch was implemented to ensure a maximal penetration depth of 200μm and maximal load of 1.5N. The achieved load, the absorbed energy and the contact stiffness were measured. Newly formed cartilage was assessed with the International Cartilage Repair Society Visual Assessment Scale (ICRS score) and histomorphometric analysis. Results were analysed statistically using the t-test, Mann–Whitney U-test and Wilcoxon test. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. After 6weeks of implantation, the transplanted area tolerated an indentation load of 0.05±0.20N. This value increased to 0.10±0.06N after 12weeks, to 0.27±0.18N after 26weeks, and 0.27±0.11N after 52weeks. The increase in the tolerated load was highly significant (p<0.0001), but the final value was not significantly different from that of intact cartilage (0.30±0.12N). Similarly, the increase in contact stiffness from 0.87±0.29Nmm−1 after 6weeks to 3.14±0.86Nmm−1 after 52weeks was highly significant (p<0.0001). The absorbed energy increased significantly (p=0.02) from 0.74×10−6±0.38×10−6Nm after 6weeks to 2.83×10−6±1.35×10−6Nm after 52weeks. At 52weeks, the International Cartilage Repair Society (ICRS) scores for the central area of the transplanted area and untreated defects were comparable. In contrast, the score for the area from the edge to the centre of the transplanted area was significantly higher (p=0.001) than the score for the unfilled defects. A biomechanically stable cartilage was built outside the centre of defect. After 52weeks, all but one empty control defect were covered by bone and a very thin layer of cartilage (ICRS 7 points). The empty hole could still be demonstrated beneath the bone. The histomorphometric evaluation revealed that 81.0±10.6% of TCP was resorbed after 52weeks. The increase in TCP resorption and replacement by spongy bone during the observation period was highly significant (p<0.0001). In this sheep trial, the mechanical properties of microporous TCP scaffolds seeded with transplanted autologous chondrocytes were similar to those of natural cartilage after 52weeks of implantation. However, the central area of the implants had a lower ICRS score than healthy cartilage. Microporous TCP was almost fully resorbed at 52weeks and replaced by bone.</abstract><cop>England</cop><pub>Elsevier Ltd</pub><pmid>22885682</pmid><doi>10.1016/j.actbio.2012.07.040</doi><tpages>11</tpages></addata></record> |
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| ispartof | Acta biomaterialia, 2013-01, Vol.9 (1), p.4845-4855 |
| issn | 1742-7061 1878-7568 |
| language | eng |
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| source | MEDLINE; Elsevier ScienceDirect Journals |
| subjects | animal models Animals Biomechanical Phenomena biomechanics Bone and Bones Bones Calcium Phosphates Cartilage Ceramics chondrocytes Contact Defects energy Implantation Indentation knees mechanical properties Microporous tricalcium phosphate Osteochondral defect resorption Scaffold Scaffolds Sheep Sheep trial Surgical implants t-test TCP (protocol) Tissue Engineering Tissue Scaffolds |
| title | Microporous calcium phosphate ceramics as tissue engineering scaffolds for the repair of osteochondral defects: Biomechanical results |
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