Design of intermediate layers for solution-processed tandem organic solar cells: Guidelines from a case study on TiO sub(x) and ZnO

In this work, we design and compare two intermediate layers (IMLs) for solution-processed tandem organic solar cells. The IMLs are made of PEDOT as the hole transport layer (HTL) coupled with either TiO sub(x) or ZnO nanoparticles as the electron transport layer (ETL). The IMLs are characterized with regard to the requirements usually found in the literature: process robustness, work function compatibilities, good optical transparency, good electrical conductivity, and finally, the effective presence of an ohmic contact between the ETL and the HTL. Specifically designed single and tandem cells are then made to compare the performances of the two IMLs. We show that the ohmic contact is the most important criterion, which has to be carefully probed in order to design a functional IML We offer recommendations on how to properly investigate this property. We also show that the nature of the ETL/HTL contact cannot be predicted from the results of the materials characterization, particularly not from the work functions and neither from the conductivities. Finally, XPS and work function experiments suggest that the nature of the contact depends on phenomena arising at the interface between the HTL and the ETL Specifically, a chemical interaction is observed between ZnO and PEDOT within the IML. We conclude that a ZnO-based IML is a better choice than a TiO sub(x)-based IML.