Frontier science and challenges on offshore carbon storage

● The main direct seal up carbon options and challenges are reviewed. ● Ocean-based CO 2 replacement for CH 4/oil exploitation is presented. ● Scale-advantage of offshore CCS hub is discussed. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology is an imperative, strategic, and constitutive method to considerably reduce anthropogenic CO 2 emissions and alleviate climate change issues. The ocean is the largest active carbon bank and an essential energy source on the Earth's surface. Compared to oceanic nature-based carbon dioxide removal (CDR), carbon capture from point sources with ocean storage is more appropriate for solving short-term climate change problems. This review focuses on the recent state-of-the-art developments in offshore carbon storage. It first discusses the current status and development prospects of CCS, associated with the challenges and uncertainties of oceanic nature-based CDR. The second section outlines the mechanisms, sites, advantages, and ecologic hazards of direct offshore CO 2 injection. The third section emphasizes the mechanisms, schemes, influencing factors, and recovery efficiency of ocean-based CO 2-CH 4 replacement and CO 2-enhanced oil recovery are reviewed. In addition, this review discusses the economic aspects of offshore CCS and the preponderance of offshore CCS hubs. Finally, the upsides, limitations, and prospects for further investigation of offshore CO 2 storage are presented.