A Hydrological Definition of Indian Monsoon Onset and Withdrawal

A diagnostic criterion that retrospectively assesses the onset and withdrawal dates of the Indian monsoon is derived from variability in the large-scale hydrologic cycle. The method is proposed as an improved means with which to understand interannual variability in the monsoon transitions as compared to criteria that rely heavily on rainfall variability over limited spatial domains (e.g., individual Indian districts). The hydrologic cycle is chosen as a key physical basis for monitoring the monsoon due to the essential roles played by zonal and meridional gradients in water vapor, clouds, and rainfall in driving the large-scale monsoon circulation. Moreover, as rainfall is greater than evaporation in wet monsoonal areas, lateral transports of water vapor are required for the existence of monsoonal rains. To diagnose onset and withdrawal, vertically integrated moisture transport (VIMT) is therefore used instead of rainfall, which over the large scale is often poorly measured and modeled. In contrast to rainfall, VIMT is generally well modeled and observed, and its variability, particularly over the Arabian Sea, is substantial during both monsoon onset and withdrawal. An index, named the hydrologic onset and withdrawal index (HOWI), is thus formed from those regions where VIMT variability is pronounced at the beginning and end of the monsoon season. The HOWI offers several advantages as the index is based on fields that are better modeled and measured than rainfall, and the index is indicative of the transition in the largescale monsoon circulation rather than being highly sensitive to synoptic variability and the spatial complexity of the monsoon transitions. The HOWI is shown to be both robust to bogus monsoon onsets and reflective of the timing, rather than the spatial character, of the transitions. Analysis of interannual variability in monsoon onset and withdrawal dates based on the HOWI reveals robust associations that are weak and insignificant when assessed using other onset criteria. For example, the associations between total June–July–August–September (JJAS) rainfall and both monsoon onset and withdrawal are weak (correlations are weaker than −0.11) when onset dates from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) or other objective methods are considered. However, the HOWI criterion shows strong correlations between total JJAS rainfall and both onset (0.30) and withdrawal (−0.49). Thus, the length of the monsoon season is shown to be strongly rel