Molecular characterization of tsetse's proboscis and its response to Trypanosoma congolense infection
Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) transmit parasitic African trypanosomes (Trypanosoma spp.), including Trypanosoma congolense, which causes animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT). AAT detrimentally affects agricultural activities in sub-Saharan Africa and has negative impacts on the livelihood and nutrien...
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| creator | Awuoche, Erick O Weiss, Brian L Vigneron, Aurélien Mireji, Paul O Aksoy, Emre Nyambega, Benson Attardo, Geoffrey M Wu, Yineng O'Neill, Michelle Murilla, Grace Aksoy, Serap |
| description | Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) transmit parasitic African trypanosomes (Trypanosoma spp.), including Trypanosoma congolense, which causes animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT). AAT detrimentally affects agricultural activities in sub-Saharan Africa and has negative impacts on the livelihood and nutrient availability for the affected communities. After tsetse ingests an infectious blood meal, T. congolense sequentially colonizes the fly's gut and proboscis (PB) organs before being transmitted to new mammalian hosts during subsequent feedings. Despite the importance of PB in blood feeding and disease transmission, little is known about its molecular composition, function and response to trypanosome infection. To bridge this gap, we used RNA-seq analysis to determine its molecular characteristics and responses to trypanosome infection. By comparing the PB transcriptome to whole head and midgut transcriptomes, we identified 668 PB-enriched transcripts that encoded proteins associated with muscle tissue, organ development, chemosensation and chitin-cuticle structure development. Moreover, transcripts encoding putative mechanoreceptors that monitor blood flow during tsetse feeding and interact with trypanosomes were also expressed in the PB. Microscopic analysis of the PB revealed cellular structures associated with muscles and cells. Infection with T. congolense resulted in increased and decreased expression of 38 and 88 transcripts, respectively. Twelve of these differentially expressed transcripts were PB-enriched. Among the transcripts induced upon infection were those encoding putative proteins associated with cell division function(s), suggesting enhanced tissue renewal, while those suppressed were associated with metabolic processes, extracellular matrix and ATP-binding as well as immunity. These results suggest that PB is a muscular organ with chemosensory and mechanosensory capabilities. The mechanoreceptors may be point of PB-trypanosomes interactions. T. congolense infection resulted in reduced metabolic and immune capacity of the PB. The molecular knowledge on the composition and putative functions of PB forms the foundation to identify new targets to disrupt tsetse's ability to feed and parasite transmission. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006057 |
| format | Article |
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AAT detrimentally affects agricultural activities in sub-Saharan Africa and has negative impacts on the livelihood and nutrient availability for the affected communities. After tsetse ingests an infectious blood meal, T. congolense sequentially colonizes the fly's gut and proboscis (PB) organs before being transmitted to new mammalian hosts during subsequent feedings. Despite the importance of PB in blood feeding and disease transmission, little is known about its molecular composition, function and response to trypanosome infection. To bridge this gap, we used RNA-seq analysis to determine its molecular characteristics and responses to trypanosome infection. By comparing the PB transcriptome to whole head and midgut transcriptomes, we identified 668 PB-enriched transcripts that encoded proteins associated with muscle tissue, organ development, chemosensation and chitin-cuticle structure development. Moreover, transcripts encoding putative mechanoreceptors that monitor blood flow during tsetse feeding and interact with trypanosomes were also expressed in the PB. Microscopic analysis of the PB revealed cellular structures associated with muscles and cells. Infection with T. congolense resulted in increased and decreased expression of 38 and 88 transcripts, respectively. Twelve of these differentially expressed transcripts were PB-enriched. Among the transcripts induced upon infection were those encoding putative proteins associated with cell division function(s), suggesting enhanced tissue renewal, while those suppressed were associated with metabolic processes, extracellular matrix and ATP-binding as well as immunity. These results suggest that PB is a muscular organ with chemosensory and mechanosensory capabilities. The mechanoreceptors may be point of PB-trypanosomes interactions. T. congolense infection resulted in reduced metabolic and immune capacity of the PB. The molecular knowledge on the composition and putative functions of PB forms the foundation to identify new targets to disrupt tsetse's ability to feed and parasite transmission.</description><identifier>ISSN: 1935-2735</identifier><identifier>ISSN: 1935-2727</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1935-2735</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006057</identifier><identifier>PMID: 29155830</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>United States: Public Library of Science</publisher><subject>African trypanosomiasis ; Agriculture ; Animal cuticle ; Animal Structures - parasitology ; Animals ; ATP ; Biochemistry ; Biology and Life Sciences ; Biotechnology ; Blood ; Blood flow ; Body organs ; Bridges ; Capacity ; Cell division ; Cellular structure ; Chemoreception ; Chitin ; Coding ; Developmental biology ; Disease transmission ; Drosophila ; Epidemiology ; Evolution ; Extracellular ; Extracellular matrix ; Feeding ; Gene expression ; Gene Expression Profiling ; Genes ; Host-Pathogen Interactions ; Hosts ; Immunity ; Immunology ; Infections ; Insects ; Interactions ; Lectins ; Livestock ; Mechanoreceptors ; Medicine and Health Sciences ; Metabolism ; Microscopic analysis ; Midgut ; Mineral nutrients ; Muscles ; Nucleic acids ; Nutrient availability ; Organs ; Parasites ; Parasitic diseases ; Proboscis ; Proteins ; Public health ; Reactive oxygen species ; Renewal ; Ribonucleic acid ; RNA ; Sequence Analysis, RNA ; Social Sciences ; Software ; Supervision ; Target recognition ; Tissue ; Transmission ; Tropical diseases ; Trypanosoma congolense ; Trypanosoma congolense - growth & development ; Trypanosome ; Trypanosomiasis ; Tsetse flies ; Tsetse Flies - parasitology ; Vector-borne diseases ; Viral infections ; Virology</subject><ispartof>PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 2017-11, Vol.11 (11), p.e0006057-e0006057</ispartof><rights>COPYRIGHT 2017 Public Library of Science</rights><rights>2017 Public Library of Science. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited: infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 11(11): e0006057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006057</rights><rights>2017 Awuoche et al 2017 Awuoche et al</rights><rights>2017 Public Library of Science. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited: infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 11(11): e0006057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006057</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><oa>free_for_read</oa><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c624t-18df930ef444266207c707cbbb3bec238c1675fde16a410be8dc062eec3c8cef3</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c624t-18df930ef444266207c707cbbb3bec238c1675fde16a410be8dc062eec3c8cef3</cites><orcidid>0000-0002-1330-8296</orcidid></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktopdf>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5695773/pdf/$$EPDF$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$Hfree_for_read</linktopdf><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5695773/$$EHTML$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$Hfree_for_read</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>230,314,723,776,780,860,881,2096,2915,23845,27901,27902,53766,53768,79342,79343</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29155830$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Awuoche, Erick O</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Weiss, Brian L</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Vigneron, Aurélien</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Mireji, Paul O</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Aksoy, Emre</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Nyambega, Benson</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Attardo, Geoffrey M</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Wu, Yineng</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>O'Neill, Michelle</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Murilla, Grace</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Aksoy, Serap</creatorcontrib><title>Molecular characterization of tsetse's proboscis and its response to Trypanosoma congolense infection</title><title>PLoS neglected tropical diseases</title><addtitle>PLoS Negl Trop Dis</addtitle><description>Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) transmit parasitic African trypanosomes (Trypanosoma spp.), including Trypanosoma congolense, which causes animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT). AAT detrimentally affects agricultural activities in sub-Saharan Africa and has negative impacts on the livelihood and nutrient availability for the affected communities. After tsetse ingests an infectious blood meal, T. congolense sequentially colonizes the fly's gut and proboscis (PB) organs before being transmitted to new mammalian hosts during subsequent feedings. Despite the importance of PB in blood feeding and disease transmission, little is known about its molecular composition, function and response to trypanosome infection. To bridge this gap, we used RNA-seq analysis to determine its molecular characteristics and responses to trypanosome infection. By comparing the PB transcriptome to whole head and midgut transcriptomes, we identified 668 PB-enriched transcripts that encoded proteins associated with muscle tissue, organ development, chemosensation and chitin-cuticle structure development. Moreover, transcripts encoding putative mechanoreceptors that monitor blood flow during tsetse feeding and interact with trypanosomes were also expressed in the PB. Microscopic analysis of the PB revealed cellular structures associated with muscles and cells. Infection with T. congolense resulted in increased and decreased expression of 38 and 88 transcripts, respectively. Twelve of these differentially expressed transcripts were PB-enriched. Among the transcripts induced upon infection were those encoding putative proteins associated with cell division function(s), suggesting enhanced tissue renewal, while those suppressed were associated with metabolic processes, extracellular matrix and ATP-binding as well as immunity. These results suggest that PB is a muscular organ with chemosensory and mechanosensory capabilities. The mechanoreceptors may be point of PB-trypanosomes interactions. T. congolense infection resulted in reduced metabolic and immune capacity of the PB. The molecular knowledge on the composition and putative functions of PB forms the foundation to identify new targets to disrupt tsetse's ability to feed and parasite transmission.</description><subject>African trypanosomiasis</subject><subject>Agriculture</subject><subject>Animal cuticle</subject><subject>Animal Structures - parasitology</subject><subject>Animals</subject><subject>ATP</subject><subject>Biochemistry</subject><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subject>Biotechnology</subject><subject>Blood</subject><subject>Blood flow</subject><subject>Body organs</subject><subject>Bridges</subject><subject>Capacity</subject><subject>Cell division</subject><subject>Cellular structure</subject><subject>Chemoreception</subject><subject>Chitin</subject><subject>Coding</subject><subject>Developmental biology</subject><subject>Disease transmission</subject><subject>Drosophila</subject><subject>Epidemiology</subject><subject>Evolution</subject><subject>Extracellular</subject><subject>Extracellular matrix</subject><subject>Feeding</subject><subject>Gene expression</subject><subject>Gene Expression Profiling</subject><subject>Genes</subject><subject>Host-Pathogen Interactions</subject><subject>Hosts</subject><subject>Immunity</subject><subject>Immunology</subject><subject>Infections</subject><subject>Insects</subject><subject>Interactions</subject><subject>Lectins</subject><subject>Livestock</subject><subject>Mechanoreceptors</subject><subject>Medicine and Health Sciences</subject><subject>Metabolism</subject><subject>Microscopic analysis</subject><subject>Midgut</subject><subject>Mineral nutrients</subject><subject>Muscles</subject><subject>Nucleic acids</subject><subject>Nutrient availability</subject><subject>Organs</subject><subject>Parasites</subject><subject>Parasitic diseases</subject><subject>Proboscis</subject><subject>Proteins</subject><subject>Public health</subject><subject>Reactive oxygen species</subject><subject>Renewal</subject><subject>Ribonucleic acid</subject><subject>RNA</subject><subject>Sequence Analysis, RNA</subject><subject>Social Sciences</subject><subject>Software</subject><subject>Supervision</subject><subject>Target recognition</subject><subject>Tissue</subject><subject>Transmission</subject><subject>Tropical diseases</subject><subject>Trypanosoma congolense</subject><subject>Trypanosoma congolense - growth & development</subject><subject>Trypanosome</subject><subject>Trypanosomiasis</subject><subject>Tsetse flies</subject><subject>Tsetse Flies - parasitology</subject><subject>Vector-borne diseases</subject><subject>Viral infections</subject><subject>Virology</subject><issn>1935-2735</issn><issn>1935-2727</issn><issn>1935-2735</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2017</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>EIF</sourceid><sourceid>BENPR</sourceid><sourceid>DOA</sourceid><recordid>eNptkl1vFCEUhidGY2v1HxidxES92RWGAYYbk6bxo0mNN_WanIEzuzSzwwhMk_rrZdxps2saIBB4znvg5RTFa0rWlEn66cZPYYB-PQ7JrgkhgnD5pDilivFVJRl_erA-KV7EeEMIV7yhz4uTSlHOG0ZOC_zhezRTD6E0WwhgEgb3B5LzQ-m7MkXM_UMsx-BbH42LJQy2dCmWAePoh4hl8uV1uBth8NHvoDR-2GTN-cQNHZpZ6mXxrIM-4qtlPit-ff1yffF9dfXz2-XF-dXKiKpOK9rYTjGCXV3XlRAVkUbm0bYta9FUrDFUSN5ZpAJqSlpsrCGiQjTMNAY7dla83euOvY96cShqqqQUXAlVZ-JyT1gPN3oMbgfhTntw-t-GDxsNITnTo26R1xZAGWJNTZq6IVa2lQQLwrQEeNb6vGSb2h1ag0MK0B-JHp8Mbqs3_lZzobiULAt8XASC_z1hTHrnosG-hwH9NN9bCKVqTlRG3_2HPv66hdpAfkC23-e8ZhbV5zx7l-VYk6n1I1RuFncufx92Lu8fBbw_CNgi9GkbfT_NXxuPwXoPmuBjDNg9mEGJnqv2_tZ6rlq9VG0Oe3No5EPQfZmyv6Dj7Es</recordid><startdate>20171120</startdate><enddate>20171120</enddate><creator>Awuoche, Erick O</creator><creator>Weiss, Brian L</creator><creator>Vigneron, Aurélien</creator><creator>Mireji, Paul O</creator><creator>Aksoy, Emre</creator><creator>Nyambega, Benson</creator><creator>Attardo, Geoffrey M</creator><creator>Wu, Yineng</creator><creator>O'Neill, Michelle</creator><creator>Murilla, Grace</creator><creator>Aksoy, Serap</creator><general>Public Library of Science</general><general>Public Library of Science (PLoS)</general><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>3V.</scope><scope>7QL</scope><scope>7SS</scope><scope>7T2</scope><scope>7T7</scope><scope>7U9</scope><scope>7X7</scope><scope>7XB</scope><scope>88E</scope><scope>8C1</scope><scope>8FD</scope><scope>8FI</scope><scope>8FJ</scope><scope>8FK</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AEUYN</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>C1K</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>F1W</scope><scope>FR3</scope><scope>FYUFA</scope><scope>GHDGH</scope><scope>H94</scope><scope>H95</scope><scope>H97</scope><scope>K9.</scope><scope>L.G</scope><scope>M0S</scope><scope>M1P</scope><scope>M7N</scope><scope>P64</scope><scope>PIMPY</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>7X8</scope><scope>5PM</scope><scope>DOA</scope><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1330-8296</orcidid></search><sort><creationdate>20171120</creationdate><title>Molecular characterization of tsetse's proboscis and its response to Trypanosoma congolense infection</title><author>Awuoche, Erick O ; Weiss, Brian L ; Vigneron, Aurélien ; Mireji, Paul O ; Aksoy, Emre ; Nyambega, Benson ; Attardo, Geoffrey M ; Wu, Yineng ; O'Neill, Michelle ; Murilla, Grace ; Aksoy, Serap</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c624t-18df930ef444266207c707cbbb3bec238c1675fde16a410be8dc062eec3c8cef3</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2017</creationdate><topic>African trypanosomiasis</topic><topic>Agriculture</topic><topic>Animal cuticle</topic><topic>Animal Structures - parasitology</topic><topic>Animals</topic><topic>ATP</topic><topic>Biochemistry</topic><topic>Biology and Life Sciences</topic><topic>Biotechnology</topic><topic>Blood</topic><topic>Blood flow</topic><topic>Body organs</topic><topic>Bridges</topic><topic>Capacity</topic><topic>Cell division</topic><topic>Cellular structure</topic><topic>Chemoreception</topic><topic>Chitin</topic><topic>Coding</topic><topic>Developmental biology</topic><topic>Disease transmission</topic><topic>Drosophila</topic><topic>Epidemiology</topic><topic>Evolution</topic><topic>Extracellular</topic><topic>Extracellular matrix</topic><topic>Feeding</topic><topic>Gene expression</topic><topic>Gene Expression Profiling</topic><topic>Genes</topic><topic>Host-Pathogen Interactions</topic><topic>Hosts</topic><topic>Immunity</topic><topic>Immunology</topic><topic>Infections</topic><topic>Insects</topic><topic>Interactions</topic><topic>Lectins</topic><topic>Livestock</topic><topic>Mechanoreceptors</topic><topic>Medicine and Health Sciences</topic><topic>Metabolism</topic><topic>Microscopic analysis</topic><topic>Midgut</topic><topic>Mineral nutrients</topic><topic>Muscles</topic><topic>Nucleic acids</topic><topic>Nutrient availability</topic><topic>Organs</topic><topic>Parasites</topic><topic>Parasitic diseases</topic><topic>Proboscis</topic><topic>Proteins</topic><topic>Public health</topic><topic>Reactive oxygen species</topic><topic>Renewal</topic><topic>Ribonucleic acid</topic><topic>RNA</topic><topic>Sequence Analysis, RNA</topic><topic>Social Sciences</topic><topic>Software</topic><topic>Supervision</topic><topic>Target recognition</topic><topic>Tissue</topic><topic>Transmission</topic><topic>Tropical diseases</topic><topic>Trypanosoma congolense</topic><topic>Trypanosoma congolense - 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Academic</collection><collection>PubMed Central (Full Participant titles)</collection><collection>DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals</collection><jtitle>PLoS neglected tropical diseases</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Awuoche, Erick O</au><au>Weiss, Brian L</au><au>Vigneron, Aurélien</au><au>Mireji, Paul O</au><au>Aksoy, Emre</au><au>Nyambega, Benson</au><au>Attardo, Geoffrey M</au><au>Wu, Yineng</au><au>O'Neill, Michelle</au><au>Murilla, Grace</au><au>Aksoy, Serap</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>Molecular characterization of tsetse's proboscis and its response to Trypanosoma congolense infection</atitle><jtitle>PLoS neglected tropical diseases</jtitle><addtitle>PLoS Negl Trop Dis</addtitle><date>2017-11-20</date><risdate>2017</risdate><volume>11</volume><issue>11</issue><spage>e0006057</spage><epage>e0006057</epage><pages>e0006057-e0006057</pages><issn>1935-2735</issn><issn>1935-2727</issn><eissn>1935-2735</eissn><abstract>Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) transmit parasitic African trypanosomes (Trypanosoma spp.), including Trypanosoma congolense, which causes animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT). AAT detrimentally affects agricultural activities in sub-Saharan Africa and has negative impacts on the livelihood and nutrient availability for the affected communities. After tsetse ingests an infectious blood meal, T. congolense sequentially colonizes the fly's gut and proboscis (PB) organs before being transmitted to new mammalian hosts during subsequent feedings. Despite the importance of PB in blood feeding and disease transmission, little is known about its molecular composition, function and response to trypanosome infection. To bridge this gap, we used RNA-seq analysis to determine its molecular characteristics and responses to trypanosome infection. By comparing the PB transcriptome to whole head and midgut transcriptomes, we identified 668 PB-enriched transcripts that encoded proteins associated with muscle tissue, organ development, chemosensation and chitin-cuticle structure development. Moreover, transcripts encoding putative mechanoreceptors that monitor blood flow during tsetse feeding and interact with trypanosomes were also expressed in the PB. Microscopic analysis of the PB revealed cellular structures associated with muscles and cells. Infection with T. congolense resulted in increased and decreased expression of 38 and 88 transcripts, respectively. Twelve of these differentially expressed transcripts were PB-enriched. Among the transcripts induced upon infection were those encoding putative proteins associated with cell division function(s), suggesting enhanced tissue renewal, while those suppressed were associated with metabolic processes, extracellular matrix and ATP-binding as well as immunity. These results suggest that PB is a muscular organ with chemosensory and mechanosensory capabilities. The mechanoreceptors may be point of PB-trypanosomes interactions. T. congolense infection resulted in reduced metabolic and immune capacity of the PB. The molecular knowledge on the composition and putative functions of PB forms the foundation to identify new targets to disrupt tsetse's ability to feed and parasite transmission.</abstract><cop>United States</cop><pub>Public Library of Science</pub><pmid>29155830</pmid><doi>10.1371/journal.pntd.0006057</doi><orcidid>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1330-8296</orcidid><oa>free_for_read</oa></addata></record> |
| fulltext | fulltext |
| identifier | ISSN: 1935-2735 |
| ispartof | PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 2017-11, Vol.11 (11), p.e0006057-e0006057 |
| issn | 1935-2735 1935-2727 1935-2735 |
| language | eng |
| recordid | cdi_plos_journals_1977659694 |
| source | Public Library of Science (PLoS) Journals Open Access; MEDLINE; DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals; EZB-FREE-00999 freely available EZB journals; PubMed Central; PubMed Central Open Access |
| subjects | African trypanosomiasis Agriculture Animal cuticle Animal Structures - parasitology Animals ATP Biochemistry Biology and Life Sciences Biotechnology Blood Blood flow Body organs Bridges Capacity Cell division Cellular structure Chemoreception Chitin Coding Developmental biology Disease transmission Drosophila Epidemiology Evolution Extracellular Extracellular matrix Feeding Gene expression Gene Expression Profiling Genes Host-Pathogen Interactions Hosts Immunity Immunology Infections Insects Interactions Lectins Livestock Mechanoreceptors Medicine and Health Sciences Metabolism Microscopic analysis Midgut Mineral nutrients Muscles Nucleic acids Nutrient availability Organs Parasites Parasitic diseases Proboscis Proteins Public health Reactive oxygen species Renewal Ribonucleic acid RNA Sequence Analysis, RNA Social Sciences Software Supervision Target recognition Tissue Transmission Tropical diseases Trypanosoma congolense Trypanosoma congolense - growth & development Trypanosome Trypanosomiasis Tsetse flies Tsetse Flies - parasitology Vector-borne diseases Viral infections Virology |
| title | Molecular characterization of tsetse's proboscis and its response to Trypanosoma congolense infection |
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