Mushrooms as Rainmakers: How Spores Act as Nuclei for Raindrops
Millions of tons of fungal spores are dispersed in the atmosphere every year. These living cells, along with plant spores and pollen grains, may act as nuclei for condensation of water in clouds. Basidiospores released by mushrooms form a significant proportion of these aerosols, particularly above...
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| description | Millions of tons of fungal spores are dispersed in the atmosphere every year. These living cells, along with plant spores and pollen grains, may act as nuclei for condensation of water in clouds. Basidiospores released by mushrooms form a significant proportion of these aerosols, particularly above tropical forests. Mushroom spores are discharged from gills by the rapid displacement of a droplet of fluid on the cell surface. This droplet is formed by the condensation of water on the spore surface stimulated by the secretion of mannitol and other hygroscopic sugars. This fluid is carried with the spore during discharge, but evaporates once the spore is airborne. Using environmental electron microscopy, we have demonstrated that droplets reform on spores in humid air. The kinetics of this process suggest that basidiospores are especially effective as nuclei for the formation of large water drops in clouds. Through this mechanism, mushroom spores may promote rainfall in ecosystems that support large populations of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic basidiomycetes. Our research heightens interest in the global significance of the fungi and raises additional concerns about the sustainability of forests that depend on heavy precipitation. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.1371/journal.pone.0140407 |
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These living cells, along with plant spores and pollen grains, may act as nuclei for condensation of water in clouds. Basidiospores released by mushrooms form a significant proportion of these aerosols, particularly above tropical forests. Mushroom spores are discharged from gills by the rapid displacement of a droplet of fluid on the cell surface. This droplet is formed by the condensation of water on the spore surface stimulated by the secretion of mannitol and other hygroscopic sugars. This fluid is carried with the spore during discharge, but evaporates once the spore is airborne. Using environmental electron microscopy, we have demonstrated that droplets reform on spores in humid air. The kinetics of this process suggest that basidiospores are especially effective as nuclei for the formation of large water drops in clouds. Through this mechanism, mushroom spores may promote rainfall in ecosystems that support large populations of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic basidiomycetes. Our research heightens interest in the global significance of the fungi and raises additional concerns about the sustainability of forests that depend on heavy precipitation.</description><identifier>ISSN: 1932-6203</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1932-6203</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140407</identifier><identifier>PMID: 26509436</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>United States: Public Library of Science</publisher><subject>Aerosols ; Agaricales - physiology ; Agaricales - ultrastructure ; Atmosphere ; Basidiocarps ; Basidiomycota ; Basidiospores ; Cell surface ; Chemistry ; Clouds ; Condensation ; Discharge ; Earth ; Ectomycorrhizas ; Electron microscopy ; Forests ; Fungi ; Genetic aspects ; Health aspects ; Heavy precipitation ; Humidity ; Kinetics ; Mannitol ; Mushroom gills ; Mushrooms ; Nuclei ; Nuclei (cytology) ; Outdoor air quality ; Physics ; Plant cells ; Pollen ; Precipitation ; Rain ; Raindrops ; Rainfall ; Scanning electron microscopy ; Secretion ; Species Specificity ; Spores ; Spores, Fungal - physiology ; Spores, Fungal - ultrastructure ; Sugar ; Sustainability ; Tropical forests ; Water ; Water droplets ; Water drops</subject><ispartof>PloS one, 2015-10, Vol.10 (10), p.e0140407-e0140407</ispartof><rights>COPYRIGHT 2015 Public Library of Science</rights><rights>2015 Hassett et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.</rights><rights>2015 Hassett et al 2015 Hassett et al</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><oa>free_for_read</oa><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c692t-598fce8d7f73129eb655eb08401c295df26a40afc9b6e76b270b19e52dae9b083</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c692t-598fce8d7f73129eb655eb08401c295df26a40afc9b6e76b270b19e52dae9b083</cites></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktopdf>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4624964/pdf/$$EPDF$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$Hfree_for_read</linktopdf><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4624964/$$EHTML$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$Hfree_for_read</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>230,314,727,780,784,864,885,2101,2927,23865,27923,27924,53790,53792,79471,79472</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26509436$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><contributor>Gladfelter, Amy S.</contributor><creatorcontrib>Hassett, Maribeth O</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Fischer, Mark W F</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Money, Nicholas P</creatorcontrib><title>Mushrooms as Rainmakers: How Spores Act as Nuclei for Raindrops</title><title>PloS one</title><addtitle>PLoS One</addtitle><description>Millions of tons of fungal spores are dispersed in the atmosphere every year. These living cells, along with plant spores and pollen grains, may act as nuclei for condensation of water in clouds. Basidiospores released by mushrooms form a significant proportion of these aerosols, particularly above tropical forests. Mushroom spores are discharged from gills by the rapid displacement of a droplet of fluid on the cell surface. This droplet is formed by the condensation of water on the spore surface stimulated by the secretion of mannitol and other hygroscopic sugars. This fluid is carried with the spore during discharge, but evaporates once the spore is airborne. Using environmental electron microscopy, we have demonstrated that droplets reform on spores in humid air. The kinetics of this process suggest that basidiospores are especially effective as nuclei for the formation of large water drops in clouds. Through this mechanism, mushroom spores may promote rainfall in ecosystems that support large populations of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic basidiomycetes. Our research heightens interest in the global significance of the fungi and raises additional concerns about the sustainability of forests that depend on heavy precipitation.</description><subject>Aerosols</subject><subject>Agaricales - physiology</subject><subject>Agaricales - ultrastructure</subject><subject>Atmosphere</subject><subject>Basidiocarps</subject><subject>Basidiomycota</subject><subject>Basidiospores</subject><subject>Cell surface</subject><subject>Chemistry</subject><subject>Clouds</subject><subject>Condensation</subject><subject>Discharge</subject><subject>Earth</subject><subject>Ectomycorrhizas</subject><subject>Electron microscopy</subject><subject>Forests</subject><subject>Fungi</subject><subject>Genetic aspects</subject><subject>Health aspects</subject><subject>Heavy precipitation</subject><subject>Humidity</subject><subject>Kinetics</subject><subject>Mannitol</subject><subject>Mushroom gills</subject><subject>Mushrooms</subject><subject>Nuclei</subject><subject>Nuclei (cytology)</subject><subject>Outdoor air quality</subject><subject>Physics</subject><subject>Plant cells</subject><subject>Pollen</subject><subject>Precipitation</subject><subject>Rain</subject><subject>Raindrops</subject><subject>Rainfall</subject><subject>Scanning electron microscopy</subject><subject>Secretion</subject><subject>Species Specificity</subject><subject>Spores</subject><subject>Spores, Fungal - physiology</subject><subject>Spores, Fungal - ultrastructure</subject><subject>Sugar</subject><subject>Sustainability</subject><subject>Tropical forests</subject><subject>Water</subject><subject>Water droplets</subject><subject>Water drops</subject><issn>1932-6203</issn><issn>1932-6203</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2015</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>EIF</sourceid><sourceid>ABUWG</sourceid><sourceid>AFKRA</sourceid><sourceid>AZQEC</sourceid><sourceid>BENPR</sourceid><sourceid>CCPQU</sourceid><sourceid>DWQXO</sourceid><sourceid>GNUQQ</sourceid><sourceid>DOA</sourceid><recordid>eNqNkl1v0zAUhiMEYmPwDxBEQkJw0eJvx7sAVROwSoNJG3BrObbTuiRxsBM-_j1um00N2gXyha3j57zH5_jNsqcQzCHm8M3GD6FV9bzzrZ0DSAAB_F52DAVGM4YAvn9wPsoexbgBgOKCsYfZEWIUCILZcfbu0xDXwfsm5irmV8q1jfpuQzzNz_2v_LrzwcZ8ofvt7edB19bllQ870ATfxcfZg0rV0T4Z95Ps64f3X87OZxeXH5dni4uZZgL1MyqKStvC8IpjiIQtGaW2BAUBUCNBTYWYIkBVWpTMclYiDkooLEVGWZE4fJI93-t2tY9y7D1KyBEXBQWEJmK5J4xXG9kF16jwR3rl5C7gw0qq0LvUgiSAcaUNN5ywVFULxoiFuLBGpakUJmm9HasNZWONtm0fVD0Rnd60bi1X_qckDBHBSBJ4NQoE_2OwsZeNi9rWtWqtH3bvLhinlKCEvvgHvbu7kVqp1IBrK5_q6q2oXBCMBAMY8UTN76DSMrZxOhmlcik-SXg9SUhMb3_3KzXEKJfXV__PXn6bsi8P2LVVdb-Ovh5659s4Bcke1MHHGGx1O2QI5NbnN9OQW5_L0ecp7dnhB90m3Rgb_wVNpvXo</recordid><startdate>20151028</startdate><enddate>20151028</enddate><creator>Hassett, Maribeth O</creator><creator>Fischer, Mark W F</creator><creator>Money, Nicholas P</creator><general>Public Library of Science</general><general>Public Library of Science (PLoS)</general><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>IOV</scope><scope>ISR</scope><scope>3V.</scope><scope>7QG</scope><scope>7QL</scope><scope>7QO</scope><scope>7RV</scope><scope>7SN</scope><scope>7SS</scope><scope>7T5</scope><scope>7TG</scope><scope>7TM</scope><scope>7U9</scope><scope>7X2</scope><scope>7X7</scope><scope>7XB</scope><scope>88E</scope><scope>8AO</scope><scope>8C1</scope><scope>8FD</scope><scope>8FE</scope><scope>8FG</scope><scope>8FH</scope><scope>8FI</scope><scope>8FJ</scope><scope>8FK</scope><scope>ABJCF</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AEUYN</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>ARAPS</scope><scope>ATCPS</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BBNVY</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>BGLVJ</scope><scope>BHPHI</scope><scope>C1K</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>D1I</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>FR3</scope><scope>FYUFA</scope><scope>GHDGH</scope><scope>GNUQQ</scope><scope>H94</scope><scope>HCIFZ</scope><scope>K9.</scope><scope>KB.</scope><scope>KB0</scope><scope>KL.</scope><scope>L6V</scope><scope>LK8</scope><scope>M0K</scope><scope>M0S</scope><scope>M1P</scope><scope>M7N</scope><scope>M7P</scope><scope>M7S</scope><scope>NAPCQ</scope><scope>P5Z</scope><scope>P62</scope><scope>P64</scope><scope>PATMY</scope><scope>PDBOC</scope><scope>PIMPY</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>PRINS</scope><scope>PTHSS</scope><scope>PYCSY</scope><scope>RC3</scope><scope>7X8</scope><scope>5PM</scope><scope>DOA</scope></search><sort><creationdate>20151028</creationdate><title>Mushrooms as Rainmakers: How Spores Act as Nuclei for Raindrops</title><author>Hassett, Maribeth O ; Fischer, Mark W F ; Money, Nicholas P</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c692t-598fce8d7f73129eb655eb08401c295df26a40afc9b6e76b270b19e52dae9b083</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2015</creationdate><topic>Aerosols</topic><topic>Agaricales - 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Academic</collection><collection>PubMed Central (Full Participant titles)</collection><collection>DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals</collection><jtitle>PloS one</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Hassett, Maribeth O</au><au>Fischer, Mark W F</au><au>Money, Nicholas P</au><au>Gladfelter, Amy S.</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>Mushrooms as Rainmakers: How Spores Act as Nuclei for Raindrops</atitle><jtitle>PloS one</jtitle><addtitle>PLoS One</addtitle><date>2015-10-28</date><risdate>2015</risdate><volume>10</volume><issue>10</issue><spage>e0140407</spage><epage>e0140407</epage><pages>e0140407-e0140407</pages><issn>1932-6203</issn><eissn>1932-6203</eissn><abstract>Millions of tons of fungal spores are dispersed in the atmosphere every year. These living cells, along with plant spores and pollen grains, may act as nuclei for condensation of water in clouds. Basidiospores released by mushrooms form a significant proportion of these aerosols, particularly above tropical forests. Mushroom spores are discharged from gills by the rapid displacement of a droplet of fluid on the cell surface. This droplet is formed by the condensation of water on the spore surface stimulated by the secretion of mannitol and other hygroscopic sugars. This fluid is carried with the spore during discharge, but evaporates once the spore is airborne. Using environmental electron microscopy, we have demonstrated that droplets reform on spores in humid air. The kinetics of this process suggest that basidiospores are especially effective as nuclei for the formation of large water drops in clouds. Through this mechanism, mushroom spores may promote rainfall in ecosystems that support large populations of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic basidiomycetes. Our research heightens interest in the global significance of the fungi and raises additional concerns about the sustainability of forests that depend on heavy precipitation.</abstract><cop>United States</cop><pub>Public Library of Science</pub><pmid>26509436</pmid><doi>10.1371/journal.pone.0140407</doi><oa>free_for_read</oa></addata></record> |
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| subjects | Aerosols Agaricales - physiology Agaricales - ultrastructure Atmosphere Basidiocarps Basidiomycota Basidiospores Cell surface Chemistry Clouds Condensation Discharge Earth Ectomycorrhizas Electron microscopy Forests Fungi Genetic aspects Health aspects Heavy precipitation Humidity Kinetics Mannitol Mushroom gills Mushrooms Nuclei Nuclei (cytology) Outdoor air quality Physics Plant cells Pollen Precipitation Rain Raindrops Rainfall Scanning electron microscopy Secretion Species Specificity Spores Spores, Fungal - physiology Spores, Fungal - ultrastructure Sugar Sustainability Tropical forests Water Water droplets Water drops |
| title | Mushrooms as Rainmakers: How Spores Act as Nuclei for Raindrops |
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