Squirrelpox virus: assessing prevalence, transmission and environmental degradation
Red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) declined in Great Britain and Ireland during the last century, due to habitat loss and the introduction of grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), which competitively exclude the red squirrel and act as a reservoir for squirrelpox virus (SQPV). The disease is generall...
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| description | Red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) declined in Great Britain and Ireland during the last century, due to habitat loss and the introduction of grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), which competitively exclude the red squirrel and act as a reservoir for squirrelpox virus (SQPV). The disease is generally fatal to red squirrels and their ecological replacement by grey squirrels is up to 25 times faster where the virus is present. We aimed to determine: (1) the seropositivity and prevalence of SQPV DNA in the invasive and native species at a regional scale; (2) possible SQPV transmission routes; and, (3) virus degradation rates under differing environmental conditions. Grey (n = 208) and red (n = 40) squirrel blood and tissues were sampled. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques established seropositivity and viral DNA presence, respectively. Overall 8% of squirrels sampled (both species combined) had evidence of SQPV DNA in their tissues and 22% were in possession of antibodies. SQPV prevalence in sampled red squirrels was 2.5%. Viral loads were typically low in grey squirrels by comparison to red squirrels. There was a trend for a greater number of positive samples in spring and summer than in winter. Possible transmission routes were identified through the presence of viral DNA in faeces (red squirrels only), urine and ectoparasites (both species). Virus degradation analyses suggested that, after 30 days of exposure to six combinations of environments, there were more intact virus particles in scabs kept in warm (25 °C) and dry conditions than in cooler (5 and 15 °C) or wet conditions. We conclude that SQPV is present at low prevalence in invasive grey squirrel populations with a lower prevalence in native red squirrels. Virus transmission could occur through urine especially during warm dry summer conditions but, more notably, via ectoparasites, which are shared by both species. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.1371/journal.pone.0089521 |
| format | Article |
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The disease is generally fatal to red squirrels and their ecological replacement by grey squirrels is up to 25 times faster where the virus is present. We aimed to determine: (1) the seropositivity and prevalence of SQPV DNA in the invasive and native species at a regional scale; (2) possible SQPV transmission routes; and, (3) virus degradation rates under differing environmental conditions. Grey (n = 208) and red (n = 40) squirrel blood and tissues were sampled. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques established seropositivity and viral DNA presence, respectively. Overall 8% of squirrels sampled (both species combined) had evidence of SQPV DNA in their tissues and 22% were in possession of antibodies. SQPV prevalence in sampled red squirrels was 2.5%. Viral loads were typically low in grey squirrels by comparison to red squirrels. There was a trend for a greater number of positive samples in spring and summer than in winter. Possible transmission routes were identified through the presence of viral DNA in faeces (red squirrels only), urine and ectoparasites (both species). Virus degradation analyses suggested that, after 30 days of exposure to six combinations of environments, there were more intact virus particles in scabs kept in warm (25 °C) and dry conditions than in cooler (5 and 15 °C) or wet conditions. We conclude that SQPV is present at low prevalence in invasive grey squirrel populations with a lower prevalence in native red squirrels. Virus transmission could occur through urine especially during warm dry summer conditions but, more notably, via ectoparasites, which are shared by both species.</description><identifier>ISSN: 1932-6203</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1932-6203</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089521</identifier><identifier>PMID: 24586845</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>United States: Public Library of Science</publisher><subject>Analysis ; Animal diseases ; Animals ; Antibodies ; Antibodies, Viral - blood ; Biology ; Chordopoxvirinae - genetics ; Chordopoxvirinae - immunology ; Deoxyribonucleic acid ; Disease ; Disease Reservoirs - statistics & numerical data ; Disease transmission ; DNA ; DNA, Viral - genetics ; Ectoparasites ; Environment ; Environmental conditions ; Environmental degradation ; Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ; Epidemics ; Epidemiology ; Feces - virology ; Food supply ; Habitat loss ; Immunoglobulins ; Infections ; Introduced Species ; Microbial Viability ; Northern Ireland - epidemiology ; Polymerase chain reaction ; Poxviridae Infections - blood ; Poxviridae Infections - epidemiology ; Poxviridae Infections - transmission ; Poxviridae Infections - veterinary ; Prevalence ; Scab ; Sciuridae - virology ; Sciurus carolinensis ; Sciurus vulgaris ; Seroepidemiologic Studies ; Species ; Squirrels ; Summer ; Tissues ; Urine ; Veterinary Science ; Viral Load ; Viruses</subject><ispartof>PloS one, 2014-02, Vol.9 (2), p.e89521</ispartof><rights>COPYRIGHT 2014 Public Library of Science</rights><rights>2014 Collins et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.</rights><rights>2014 Collins et al 2014 Collins et al</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><oa>free_for_read</oa><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c692t-daa292b880b2cac667572196b2bb6f02e0c7e73ee28c93ccee1b67cbf9b962913</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c692t-daa292b880b2cac667572196b2bb6f02e0c7e73ee28c93ccee1b67cbf9b962913</cites></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktopdf>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3931809/pdf/$$EPDF$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$Hfree_for_read</linktopdf><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3931809/$$EHTML$$P50$$Gpubmedcentral$$Hfree_for_read</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>230,314,723,776,780,860,881,2096,2915,23845,27901,27902,53766,53768,79342,79343</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24586845$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Collins, Lisa M</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Warnock, Neil D</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Tosh, David G</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>McInnes, Colin</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Everest, David</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Montgomery, W Ian</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Scantlebury, Mike</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Marks, Nikki</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Dick, Jaimie T A</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Reid, Neil</creatorcontrib><title>Squirrelpox virus: assessing prevalence, transmission and environmental degradation</title><title>PloS one</title><addtitle>PLoS One</addtitle><description>Red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) declined in Great Britain and Ireland during the last century, due to habitat loss and the introduction of grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), which competitively exclude the red squirrel and act as a reservoir for squirrelpox virus (SQPV). 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Virus transmission could occur through urine especially during warm dry summer conditions but, more notably, via ectoparasites, which are shared by both species.</description><subject>Analysis</subject><subject>Animal diseases</subject><subject>Animals</subject><subject>Antibodies</subject><subject>Antibodies, Viral - blood</subject><subject>Biology</subject><subject>Chordopoxvirinae - genetics</subject><subject>Chordopoxvirinae - immunology</subject><subject>Deoxyribonucleic acid</subject><subject>Disease</subject><subject>Disease Reservoirs - statistics & numerical data</subject><subject>Disease transmission</subject><subject>DNA</subject><subject>DNA, Viral - genetics</subject><subject>Ectoparasites</subject><subject>Environment</subject><subject>Environmental conditions</subject><subject>Environmental degradation</subject><subject>Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay</subject><subject>Epidemics</subject><subject>Epidemiology</subject><subject>Feces - virology</subject><subject>Food supply</subject><subject>Habitat loss</subject><subject>Immunoglobulins</subject><subject>Infections</subject><subject>Introduced Species</subject><subject>Microbial Viability</subject><subject>Northern Ireland - epidemiology</subject><subject>Polymerase chain reaction</subject><subject>Poxviridae Infections - blood</subject><subject>Poxviridae Infections - epidemiology</subject><subject>Poxviridae Infections - transmission</subject><subject>Poxviridae Infections - veterinary</subject><subject>Prevalence</subject><subject>Scab</subject><subject>Sciuridae - virology</subject><subject>Sciurus carolinensis</subject><subject>Sciurus vulgaris</subject><subject>Seroepidemiologic Studies</subject><subject>Species</subject><subject>Squirrels</subject><subject>Summer</subject><subject>Tissues</subject><subject>Urine</subject><subject>Veterinary Science</subject><subject>Viral Load</subject><subject>Viruses</subject><issn>1932-6203</issn><issn>1932-6203</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2014</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><sourceid>EIF</sourceid><sourceid>BENPR</sourceid><sourceid>DOA</sourceid><recordid>eNqNkl1rFDEUhgdRbK3-A9EBQRC6az5m8tELoRStC4WCq96GTObMbJbZZJvMLPXfm3WnZQcUJBcJ5zznTfLyZtlrjOaYcvxx7YfgdDffegdzhIQsCX6SnWJJyYwRRJ8enU-yFzGuESqpYOx5dkKKUjBRlKfZcnk32BCg2_r7fGfDEC9yHSPEaF2bbwPsdAfOwHneB-3ixqaGd7l2dQ4u8d5twPW6y2tog651n7ovs2eN7iK8Gvez7MeXz9-vvs5ubq8XV5c3M8Mk6We11kSSSghUEaMNY7zkBEtWkapiDSKADAdOAYgwkhoDgCvGTdXISjIiMT3L3h50t52PavQjKlwiJIvkyJ5YHIja67XaBrvR4Zfy2qo_BR9apUNvTQeqxrQWhdCcMF6UBasQ5w1nRmJNSG3KpPVpvG2oNlCb9O2gu4notOPsSrV-p6ikWCCZBN6NAsHfDRD7fzx5pNpkvLKu8UnMJN-Nuiy44JJxyhM1_wuVVg0ba1IiGpvqk4EPk4HE9HDft3qIUS2W3_6fvf05Zd8fsSvQXb-Kvhv2OYhTsDiAJvgYAzSPzmGk9oF-cEPtA63GQKexN8euPw49JJj-Bhzu8h0</recordid><startdate>20140221</startdate><enddate>20140221</enddate><creator>Collins, Lisa M</creator><creator>Warnock, Neil D</creator><creator>Tosh, David G</creator><creator>McInnes, Colin</creator><creator>Everest, David</creator><creator>Montgomery, W Ian</creator><creator>Scantlebury, Mike</creator><creator>Marks, Nikki</creator><creator>Dick, Jaimie T A</creator><creator>Reid, Neil</creator><general>Public Library of Science</general><general>Public Library of Science (PLoS)</general><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>IOV</scope><scope>ISR</scope><scope>3V.</scope><scope>7QG</scope><scope>7QL</scope><scope>7QO</scope><scope>7RV</scope><scope>7SN</scope><scope>7SS</scope><scope>7T5</scope><scope>7TG</scope><scope>7TM</scope><scope>7U9</scope><scope>7X2</scope><scope>7X7</scope><scope>7XB</scope><scope>88E</scope><scope>8AO</scope><scope>8C1</scope><scope>8FD</scope><scope>8FE</scope><scope>8FG</scope><scope>8FH</scope><scope>8FI</scope><scope>8FJ</scope><scope>8FK</scope><scope>ABJCF</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AEUYN</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>ARAPS</scope><scope>ATCPS</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BBNVY</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>BGLVJ</scope><scope>BHPHI</scope><scope>C1K</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>D1I</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>FR3</scope><scope>FYUFA</scope><scope>GHDGH</scope><scope>GNUQQ</scope><scope>H94</scope><scope>HCIFZ</scope><scope>K9.</scope><scope>KB.</scope><scope>KB0</scope><scope>KL.</scope><scope>L6V</scope><scope>LK8</scope><scope>M0K</scope><scope>M0S</scope><scope>M1P</scope><scope>M7N</scope><scope>M7P</scope><scope>M7S</scope><scope>NAPCQ</scope><scope>P5Z</scope><scope>P62</scope><scope>P64</scope><scope>PATMY</scope><scope>PDBOC</scope><scope>PIMPY</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>PRINS</scope><scope>PTHSS</scope><scope>PYCSY</scope><scope>RC3</scope><scope>5PM</scope><scope>DOA</scope></search><sort><creationdate>20140221</creationdate><title>Squirrelpox virus: assessing prevalence, transmission and environmental degradation</title><author>Collins, Lisa M ; Warnock, Neil D ; Tosh, David G ; McInnes, Colin ; Everest, David ; Montgomery, W Ian ; Scantlebury, Mike ; Marks, Nikki ; Dick, Jaimie T A ; Reid, Neil</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c692t-daa292b880b2cac667572196b2bb6f02e0c7e73ee28c93ccee1b67cbf9b962913</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2014</creationdate><topic>Analysis</topic><topic>Animal diseases</topic><topic>Animals</topic><topic>Antibodies</topic><topic>Antibodies, Viral - 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The disease is generally fatal to red squirrels and their ecological replacement by grey squirrels is up to 25 times faster where the virus is present. We aimed to determine: (1) the seropositivity and prevalence of SQPV DNA in the invasive and native species at a regional scale; (2) possible SQPV transmission routes; and, (3) virus degradation rates under differing environmental conditions. Grey (n = 208) and red (n = 40) squirrel blood and tissues were sampled. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques established seropositivity and viral DNA presence, respectively. Overall 8% of squirrels sampled (both species combined) had evidence of SQPV DNA in their tissues and 22% were in possession of antibodies. SQPV prevalence in sampled red squirrels was 2.5%. Viral loads were typically low in grey squirrels by comparison to red squirrels. There was a trend for a greater number of positive samples in spring and summer than in winter. Possible transmission routes were identified through the presence of viral DNA in faeces (red squirrels only), urine and ectoparasites (both species). Virus degradation analyses suggested that, after 30 days of exposure to six combinations of environments, there were more intact virus particles in scabs kept in warm (25 °C) and dry conditions than in cooler (5 and 15 °C) or wet conditions. We conclude that SQPV is present at low prevalence in invasive grey squirrel populations with a lower prevalence in native red squirrels. Virus transmission could occur through urine especially during warm dry summer conditions but, more notably, via ectoparasites, which are shared by both species.</abstract><cop>United States</cop><pub>Public Library of Science</pub><pmid>24586845</pmid><doi>10.1371/journal.pone.0089521</doi><tpages>e89521</tpages><oa>free_for_read</oa></addata></record> |
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| recordid | cdi_plos_journals_1500940081 |
| source | MEDLINE; DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals; Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek - Frei zugängliche E-Journals; PubMed Central; Free Full-Text Journals in Chemistry; Public Library of Science (PLoS) |
| subjects | Analysis Animal diseases Animals Antibodies Antibodies, Viral - blood Biology Chordopoxvirinae - genetics Chordopoxvirinae - immunology Deoxyribonucleic acid Disease Disease Reservoirs - statistics & numerical data Disease transmission DNA DNA, Viral - genetics Ectoparasites Environment Environmental conditions Environmental degradation Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay Epidemics Epidemiology Feces - virology Food supply Habitat loss Immunoglobulins Infections Introduced Species Microbial Viability Northern Ireland - epidemiology Polymerase chain reaction Poxviridae Infections - blood Poxviridae Infections - epidemiology Poxviridae Infections - transmission Poxviridae Infections - veterinary Prevalence Scab Sciuridae - virology Sciurus carolinensis Sciurus vulgaris Seroepidemiologic Studies Species Squirrels Summer Tissues Urine Veterinary Science Viral Load Viruses |
| title | Squirrelpox virus: assessing prevalence, transmission and environmental degradation |
| url | https://sfx.bib-bvb.de/sfx_tum?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info:ofi/enc:UTF-8&ctx_tim=2025-02-09T21%3A43%3A05IST&url_ver=Z39.88-2004&url_ctx_fmt=infofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rfr_id=info:sid/primo.exlibrisgroup.com:primo3-Article-gale_plos_&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Squirrelpox%20virus:%20assessing%20prevalence,%20transmission%20and%20environmental%20degradation&rft.jtitle=PloS%20one&rft.au=Collins,%20Lisa%20M&rft.date=2014-02-21&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.spage=e89521&rft.pages=e89521-&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.eissn=1932-6203&rft_id=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0089521&rft_dat=%3Cgale_plos_%3EA478796737%3C/gale_plos_%3E%3Curl%3E%3C/url%3E&disable_directlink=true&sfx.directlink=off&sfx.report_link=0&rft_id=info:oai/&rft_pqid=1500940081&rft_id=info:pmid/24586845&rft_galeid=A478796737&rft_doaj_id=oai_doaj_org_article_d13d848a72674546b077f76c91a22dc5&rfr_iscdi=true |