Soil functions and ecosystem services in conventional, conservation, and integrated agricultural systems. A review

Soil tillage, crop residue management, nutrient management, and pest management are among the core farming practices. Each of these practices impacts a range of soil functions and ecosystem services, including water availability for crops, weed control, insect and pathogen control, soil quality and functioning, soil erosion control, soil organic carbon pool, environmental pollution control, greenhouse gas refuse, and crop yield productivity. In this study, we reviewed relevant bibliography and then developed a simple conceptual model, in which these soil functions and ecosystem services were scored and compared between conventional, conservation, and integrated agricultural systems. Using this conceptual model revealed that the overall agro-environmental score, excluding crop yield productivity, is largest for conservation systems (71.9Â %), intermediate for integrated systems (68.8Â %), and the smallest for conventional systems (52.1Â %). At the same time, the crop yield productivity score is largest for integrated systems (83.3Â %), intermediate for conventional systems (66.7Â %), and the smallest for conservation systems (58.3Â %). This study shows the potential of moderate-intensity and integrated farming systems in carrying on global food security while adequately sustaining environmental quality and ecosystem services.