Global antimicrobial resistance: a system-wide comprehensive investigation using the Global One Health Index

Background Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the top ten global public health challenges. However, given the lack of a comprehensive assessment of worldwide AMR status, our objective is to develop a One Health-based system-wide evaluation tool on global AMR. Methods We have further developed the three-hierarchical Global One Health Index (GOHI)-AMR indicator scheme, which consists of five key indicators, 17 indicators, and 49 sub-indicators, by incorporating 146 countries' data from diverse authoritative databases, including WHO's Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) and the European CDC. We investigated the overall- or sub-rankings of GOHI-AMR at the international/regional/national levels for data preprocessing and score calculation utilizing the existing GOHI methodology. Additionally, a correlation analysis was conducted between the GOHI-AMR and other socioeconomic factors. Results The average GOHI-AMR score for 146 countries is 38.45. As expected, high-income countries (HICs) outperform the other three income groups on overall rankings and all five key indicators of GOHI-AMR, whereas low-income countries unexpectedly outperform upper-middle-income countries and lower-middle-income countries on the antibiotics-resistant key indicator (ARR) and ARR-subordinate indicators, including carbapenem-, [beta]-lactam-, and quinolone resistance, and even HICs on aminoglycoside resistance. There were no significant differences among the four groups on the environmental-monitoring indicator (P > 0.05). GOHI-AMR was positively correlated with gross domestic product, life expectancy, and AMR-related publications, but negatively with natural growth rate and chronic respiratory disease. In contrast to Cyprus, the remarkably lower prevalence of "ESKAPE pathogens" in high-scoring Sweden and Denmark highlights Europe's huge gaps. China and Russia outperformed the other three BRICS countries on all key indicators, particularly India's ARR and Brazil's AMR laboratory network and coordination capacity. Furthermore, significant internal disparities in carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) prevalence were observed between China and the USA, with MRSA prevalence both gradually declining, whereas CRKP prevalence has been declining in the USA but increasing in China, consistent with higher carbapenems-related indicator' performance in USA. Conclusions GOHI-AMR is the most compr